<h2> TWENTY-SIX CHAPTERS THAT MIGHT HAVE BEEN.</h2>
<br/>
<h2>I. AMERICA IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.</h2>
<p>To most people it would seem quite out of the question that a chapter
on America in the Thirteenth Century might have been written. One of
the most surprising chapters for most readers in the previous edition
was that on Great Explorers and the Foundation of Geography, for it
was a revelation to learn that Thirteenth Century travelers had
anticipated all of our discoveries in the Far and in the Near East
seven centuries ago. Certain documents have turned up, however, which
make it very clear that with the same motives as those which urged
Eastern travelers, Europeans went just as far towards the West at this
time. Documents found in the Vatican Archives in 1903 and exhibited at
St. Louis in 1904, have set at rest finally and absolutely the long
disputed question of the discovery of America by the Norsemen, and in
connection with these the story of America in the Thirteenth Century
might well have been told. There is a letter from Pope Innocent III.,
dated February 13, 1206, addressed to the Archbishop of Norway, who
held jurisdiction over Greenland, which shows not only the presence of
the Norsemen on the American Continent at this time, but also that
they had been here for a considerable period, and that there were a
number of churches and pastors and large flocks in whom the Roman See
had a lively interest. There are Americana from three other Popes of
the Thirteenth Century. John XXI. wrote, in 1276, Nicholas III. two
letters, one dated January 31, 1279, and another June 9, 1279, and
Martin III. wrote 1282. We have inserted on the opposite page a
reproduction of a portion of the first Papal document extant relating
to America, the letter of Pope Innocent III., taken from "The Norse
Discovery of America" (The Norraena Society, N. Y., 1908). The word
<i>Grenelandie</i>, underscored, indicates the subject. The writing as an
example of the chirography of the century is of interest.</p>
<br/>
<h2>II. A REPRESENTATIVE UPPER HOUSE.</h2>
<p>In most historical attempts at government by the people it has been
recognized that legislation is better balanced if there are two
chambers in the law-making body, one directly elected by the people,
the other indirectly chosen and representing important vested
interests that are likely to make its members conservative. The
initiative for legislation comes, as a rule, from the direct
representatives of the people, while the upper chamber represses
radical law-making or sudden changes in legislative policy, yet does
not hamper too much the progress of democracy.</p>
<p class="image">
<ANTIMG alt="" src="images/i433.jpg" border=1><br/>
PART OF LETTER OF POPE INNOCENT III. MENTIONING GREENLAND.</p>
<p>During the last few years a crisis in English politics has led to a
very general demand for a modification of the status of the House of
Lords, while almost similar conditions have led to the beginning at
least of a similar demand for the modification of our Senate in this
country. Both these upper chambers have come to represent vested
interests to too great a degree. The House of Lords has been the
subject of special deprecation. The remark is sometimes made that it
is unfortunate that England is weighted down by this political
incubus, the House of Lords, which is spoken of as a heritage from the
Middle Ages. The general impression, of course, is that the English
House of Lords, as at present constituted, comes down from the oldest
times of constitutional government in England. Nothing could well be
more untrue than any such idea.</p>
<p>The old upper chamber of England, the medieval House of Lords, was an
eminently representative body. Out of the 625 or more of members of
the English House of Lords at the present time about five hundred and
fifty hold their seats by heredity. Only about seventy-five are in
some sense elective. At least one-half of these elected peers,
however, must be chosen from the hereditary nobility of Ireland and
Scotland. Nearly nineteen-twentieths of the membership of the House of
Lords, as at present constituted, owe their place in national
legislation entirely to heredity. Until the reformation so-called this
was not so. More than one-half of the English House of Lords, a good
working majority, consisted of the Lords spiritual. Besides the
Bishops and Archbishops there were the Abbots and Priors of
monasteries, and the masters of religious orders. These men as a rule
had come up from the people. They had risen to their positions by
intellectual abilities and by administrative capacity. The abbots and
other superiors of religious orders had been chosen by their monks as
a rule because, having shown that they knew how to rule themselves,
they were deemed most fitting to rule over others.</p>
<p>Even in our day, when the Church occupies nothing like the position in
the hearts of the masses that she held in the ages of faith, our
Catholic Cardinals, Archbishops and Bishops, both here and in England,
are chosen as members of arbitration boards to settle strikes and
other social difficulties, because it is felt that the working class
has full confidence in them, and that they are thoroughly
representative of the spirit of democracy. In England Cardinal Manning
served more than once in critical social conditions. In this country
we have had a series of such examples. From these we can better
understand what the Lords spiritual represented in the English House
of Lords. There were abuses, though they were not nearly so frequent
as were thought, by which unworthy men sometimes reached such
positions, for men abuse even the best things, but in general these
clerical members of the House of Lords were the chosen intellectual
and moral products of the kingdom. Since they were without families
they had less temptation to serve personal interests and,
besides, they had received a life-long training in unselfishness, and
the best might be expected of them. For an ideal second chamber I know
none that can compare with this old English House of Lords of the
Middle Ages. How much it was responsible for the foundation of the
liberties of which the English-speaking people are deservedly so
proud, and which have been treated in some detail in the chapter on
Origins in Law, would be interesting to trace.</p>
<br/>
<h2>III. THE PARISH, AND TRAINING IN CITIZENSHIP.</h2>
<p>Mr. Toulmin Smith, in his book on "The Parish," and Dom Gasquet, in
his volume on "The Parish Before the Reformation," have shown what a
magnificent institution for popular self-government was the English
medieval parish, and how much this contributed to the solution of
important social problems and to the creation of a true democratic
spirit. Mr. Toulmin Smith calls particular attention to the fact that
when local self-government gets out of the hands of the people of a
neighborhood personal civic energy goes to sleep. The feeling of
mutual responsibility of the men of the place is lost, to the great
detriment of their larger citizenship in municipality and nation. In
the parish, however, forming a separate community, of which the
members had rights and duties, the primal solid basis for government,
the parish authorities took charge of the highways, the roads, the
paths, the health, the police, the constabulary, and the fires of
their neighborhood. They kept, besides, a registry of births and
deaths and marriages. When these essentially local concerns are
controlled in large bodies the liability to abuse at once becomes easy
and political corruption sets in. He mentions, besides many parochial
institutions, a parochial friendly society for loans on security,
parish gilds for insurance, and many other phases of that thoroughly
organized mutual aid so characteristic of the Middle Ages.</p>
<p>These parishes became completely organized, so as to be thoroughly
democratic and representative of all the possibilities of local
self-government under King Edward at the end of the Thirteenth and the
beginning of the Fourteenth Century. Rev. Augustus Jessopp, in "After
the Great Pillage," tells the story of how the parishes were broken up
as a consequence of the confiscation of their endowment during the
so-called reformation. The quotation from him may be found in Appendix
III. in the section on "How it all stopped."</p>
<p>Toulmin Smith is not so emphatic, but he is scarcely less explicit
than Jessopp. "The attempts of ecclesiastical authority to encroach on
the civil authorities of the parish have been more successful since
the reformation." As a matter of fact, at that time all government
became centralized, and complete contradiction though it may seem to
be of what is sometimes declared the place of the reformation in the
history of human liberty, the genuine democratic institutions of
England were to a great extent impaired by the reform, and an
autocracy, which later developed into an autocratic aristocracy,
largely took its place. Out of that England has gradually lifted
itself during the Nineteenth Century. Even now, however, as pointed
out in the preceding chapter that might have been, the House of Lords
is not at all what it was in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
when the majority of its members were Lords spiritual, men who had
come up from the masses as a rule.</p>
<br/>
<h2>IV. THE CHANCE TO RISE.</h2>
<p>We are very prone to think that even though there may have been
excellent opportunities for the higher education in the Thirteenth
Century and, in many ways, an ideal education of the masses, still
there was one great social drawback in those times, the lack of
opportunity for men of humble birth to rise to higher stations.
Nothing, however, is less true. There probably never was a time when
even members of the poorest families might rise more readily or
rapidly to the highest positions in the land. The sons of village
merchants and village artisans, nay, the sons and grandsons of farmers
bound to the soil, could by educational success become clergymen in
various ranks, and by attaining a bishopric or the position of abbot
or prior of a monastery, reach a seat in the House of Lords. Most of
the Lord High Chancellors of England during the Middle Ages—and some
of them are famous for their genius as canon and civil lawyers, for
their diplomatic abilities and their breadth of view and capacity as
administrators—were the sons of humble parents.</p>
<p>Take the single example of Stratford, the details of whose
inhabitants' lives, because of the greatness of one of them, have
attracted more attention than those of any other town of corresponding
size in England. At the beginning of the Fourteenth Century it is only
what we would call a village, and it probably did not have 3,000
inhabitants, if, indeed, the number was not less than 2,000. In his
book, "Shakespeare the Boy," Mr. Rolfe calls attention to certain
conditions that interest us in the old village. He tells us of what
happened as a result of the development of liberty in the Thirteenth
Century:</p>
<p class="cite">
"Villeinage gradually disappeared in the reign of Edward VII.
(1327-1337), and those who had been subject to it became free
tenants, paying definite rents for house and land. Three natives of
the town, who, after the fashion of the time, took their surnames
from the place of their birth, rose to high positions in the Church,
one becoming Archbishop of Canterbury, and the others respectively
Bishops of London and Chichester. John of Stratford and Robert of
Stratford were brothers, and Ralph of Stratford was their nephew.
John and Robert were both for a time Chancellors of England, and
there is no other instance of two brothers attaining that high
office in succession."</p>
<p>To many people the fact that the avenue to rise was through the Clergy
more than in any other way will be disappointing. One advantage,
however, that the old people would insist that they had from their
system was that these men, having no direct descendants, were less
likely to pursue selfish aims and more likely to try to secure the
benefit of the Community than are those who, in our time, rise through
the legal profession. The Lord High Chancellors of recent time have
all been lawyers. Would not most of the world confess that the
advantage was with the medieval peoples?</p>
<p>President Woodrow Wilson of Princeton realized sympathetically this
great element of saving democracy in the Middle Ages, and has paid
worthy tribute to it. He said: "The only reason why government did not
suffer dry rot in the Middle Ages under the aristocratic systems which
then prevailed was that the men who were efficient instruments of
government were drawn from the church—from that great church, that
body which we now distinguish from other church bodies as the Roman
Catholic Church. The Roman Catholic Church then, as now, was a great
democracy. There was no peasant so humble that he might not become a
priest, and no priest so obscure that he might not become Pope of
Christendom, and every chancellery in Europe was ruled by those
learned, trained and accomplished men—the priesthood of that great
and then dominant church; and so, what kept government alive in the
Middle Ages was this constant rise of the sap from the bottom, from
the rank and file of the great body of the people through the open
channels of the Roman Catholic priesthood."</p>
<br/>
<h2>V. INSURANCE.</h2>
<p>Insurance is usually supposed to be a modern idea representing one of
those developments of the capitalization of mutual risks of life,
property, and the like that have come as a consequence of modern
progress. The insurance system of the Middle Ages, the organization of
which came in the Thirteenth Century, is therefore extremely
interesting. It was accomplished, as was every form of co-operation
and co-ordination of effort, through special gilds or through the
trade or merchant gilds. Among the objects of the gilds enumerated by
Toulmin Smith is insurance against loss by fire. This was paid through
the particular gild to which the merchant belonged, or in the case of
the artisan through a special gild which he joined for the purpose.
Provision was made, however, for much more than insurance by fire. Our
fire insurance companies are probably several centuries old, so also
are our insurance arrangements against shipwreck. Other features of
insurance, however, are much more recent. Practically all of these
were in active existence during the Middle Ages, though they
disappeared with the so-called reformation, and then did not
come into existence again for several centuries and, indeed, not until
our own time.</p>
<p>The old gilds, for instance, provided insurance against loss from
flood, a feature of insurance that has not, so far as I know,
developed in our time, against loss by robbery (our burglary insurance
is quite recent), against loss by the fall of a house, by
imprisonment, and then also insurance against the loss of cattle and
farm products. All the features of life insurance also were in
existence. The partial disability clauses of life or accident
insurance policies are recent developments. In the old days there is
insurance against the loss of sight, against the loss of a limb, or
any other form of crippling. The deaf and dumb might be insured so as
to secure an income for them, and corresponding relief for leprosy
might be obtained; so that, if one were set apart from the community
by the law requiring segregation of lepers, there might be provision
for food and lodging, even though productive work had become
impossible. In a word, the insurance system of the Middle Ages was
thoroughly developed. It was not capitalistic. The charges were only
enough to maintain the system, and not such as to provide large
percentage returns on invested stock and on bonds, and the
accumulation of huge surpluses that almost inevitably lead to gross
abuses. What is best in our modern system of insurance is an imitation
of the older methods. Certain of the trade insurance companies which
assume a portion of the risk on mills, factories and the like, are
typical examples. They know the conditions, enforce proper
precautions, keep an absolute check on suspicious losses, accumulate
only a moderate surplus and present very few opportunities for
insurance abuses. The same thing is true for the fraternal societies
that conduct life insurance. When properly managed they represent the
lowest possible cost and the best efficiency with least opportunities
for fraud and without any temptations to interfere with legislation
and any allurements for legislators to spend their time making strike
and graft bills instead of doing legislative work.</p>
<br/>
<h2>VI. OLD AGE PENSIONS.</h2>
<p>This generation has occupied itself much with the question of old age
pensions. Probably most people feel that this is the first time in the
world's history that such arrangements have been made. The movement is
supposed to represent a recent development of humanitarian purpose,
and to be a feature of recent philanthropic evolution. It is rather
interesting, in the light of that idea, to see how well they
accomplish this same purpose in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth
Centuries. In our time it has been a government affair, with all the
possibilities of abuse that there are in a huge pension system, and
surely no country knows it better than we do here in America. The old
countries, Germany and France, have established a contributing
system of pension. This was the model of their system of caring for
the old and the disabled in the Middle Ages. Toulmin Smith cites a
rule of one of the gilds which gives us exactly the status of the old
age disability pension question. After a workman had been seven years
a member, the gild assured him a livelihood in case of disability from
any cause.</p>
<p>When we recall that employer as well as employee as a rule belonged to
the gild and this was a real mutual organization in which there was a
sharing of the various risks of life, we see how eminently well
adapted to avoid abuses this old system was. Where the pensioners
appeal to a government pension system, abuses are almost inevitable.
There is the constant temptation to exploit the system on the part of
the pensioners, because they have the feeling that if they do not,
others will. Then the investigation of each particular case is
difficult, and favoritism and graft of various kinds inevitably finds
its way in. Where the pension is paid by a small body of fellow
workmen, the investigation is easy, the temptation to exploit does not
readily find place, and while abuses are to some extent inevitable,
these are small in amount, and not likely to be frequent. Friends and
neighbors know conditions, and men are not pauperized by the system,
and if, after an injury that seemed at first so disabling as to be
permanent, the pensioner should improve enough to be able to get back
to work, or, at least, to do something to support himself, the system
is elastic enough so that he is not likely to be tempted to continue
to live on others rather than on his own efforts.</p>
<br/>
<h2>VII. THE WAYS AND MEANS OF CHARITY—ORGANIZED CHARITY.</h2>
<p>Most of us would be apt to think that our modern methods of obtaining
funds for charitable purposes represented definite developments, and
that at least special features of our collections for charity were our
own invention. In recent years the value of being able to reach a
great many people even for small amounts has been particularly
recognized. "Tag day" is one manifestation of that. Everyone in a
neighborhood is asked to contribute a small amount for a particular
charitable purpose, and the whole collection usually runs up to a snug
sum. Practices very similar to this were quite common in the
Thirteenth Century. As in our time, it was the women who collected the
money. A rope, for instance, was stretched across a marketplace, where
traffic was busy, and everyone who passed was required to pay a toll
for charity. Occasionally the rope was stretched across a bridge and
the tolls were collected on a particular day each year. Other forms of
charitable accumulation resembled ours in many respects.
Entertainments of various kinds were given for charity, and special
collections were made during the exhibition of mystery plays
partly to pay the expenses of the representation, and the surplus to
go to the charities of the particular gild.</p>
<p>Most of the charity, however, was organized. Indeed it is the
organization of charity during the Thirteenth Century that represents
the best feature of its fraternalism. The needy were cared for by the
gilds themselves. There were practically no poorhouses, and if a man
was willing to work and had already shown this willingness, there were
definite bureaus that would help him at least to feed his family while
he was out of work. This system, however, was flexible enough to
provide also for the ne'er-do-wells, the tramps, the beggars, but they
were given not money, but tokens which enabled them to obtain the
necessaries of life without being able to abuse charity. The
committees of the gilds consulted in various ways among themselves and
with the church wardens so as to be sure that, while all the needy
were receiving help, no one was abusing charity by drawing help from a
number of different quarters. Of course, they did not have the problem
of large city life that we have, and so their comparatively simple
organization of charity sufficed for all the needs of the time, and at
the same time anticipated our methods.</p>
<br/>
<h2>VIII. SCIENTIFIC UNIVERSITIES.</h2>
<p>In the first edition of this book I called attention to the fact, that
science, even in our sense of physical science, was, in spite of
impressions to the contrary, a favorite subject for students and
teachers in the early universities. What might have been insisted on,
however, is that these old universities were scientific universities
resembling our own so closely in their devotion to science as to
differ from them only in certain unimportant aspects. Because the
universities for three centuries before the Nineteenth had been
occupied mainly with classical studies, we are prone to think that
these were the main subjects of university teaching for all the
centuries before. Nothing could well be less true. The undergraduate
studies consisted of the seven liberal arts so-called, though these
were largely studied from the scientific standpoint. The quotation
from Prof. Huxley ( <SPAN href="#466Hux">Appendix III., Education</SPAN>) makes this very clear.
What we would now call the graduate studies consisted of metaphysics,
in which considerable physics were studied, astronomy, medicine, above
all, mathematics, and then the ethical sciences, under which were
studied what we now call ethics, politics and economics. The picture
of these medieval universities as I have given them in my lecture on
Medieval Scientific Universities, in "Education, How Old the New,"
makes this very clear. The interests and studies were very like those
of our own time, only the names for them being different. Nature-study
was a favorite subject, and, as I have pointed out in "The Popes and
Science," Dante must be considered as a great nature student, for he
was able to draw the most exquisite figures from details of knowledge
of living things with which few poets are familiar. The books of
the professors of the Thirteenth Century which have been preserved,
those of Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Aquinas, Duns Scotus and
others, make it very clear that scientific teaching was the main
occupation of the university faculties, while the preservation of
these huge tomes by the diligent copying of disciples shows how deeply
interested were their pupils in the science of the time.</p>
<br/>
<h2>IX. MEDICAL TEACHING AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS.</h2>
<p>At all times in the history of education, the standards of scientific
education, and the institutions of learning, can be best judged from
the condition of the medical schools. When the medical sciences are
taken seriously, when thorough preparation is demanded before their
study may be taken up, when four or five years of attention to
theoretic and practical medicine are required for graduation, and when
the professors are writing textbooks that are to attract attention for
generations afterwards, then, there is always a thoroughly scientific
temper m the university itself. Medicine is likely to suffer, first,
whenever there is neglect of science. The studies of the German
historians, Puschmann, Pagel, Neuberger, and Sudhoff in recent years,
have made it very clear that the medical schools of the universities
of the Thirteenth Century were maintaining high standards. The
republication of old texts, especially in France, has called attention
to the magnificent publications of their professors, while a review of
their laws and regulations confirms the idea of the good work that was
being done. Gurlt, in his history of surgery, "Geschichte der
Chirurgie" (Berlin, 1898), has reviewed the textbooks of Roger and
Roland and the Four Masters, of William of Salicet and Lanfranc and of
many others, in a way to make it very clear that these men were
excellent teachers.</p>
<p>When we discover that three years of preparatory university work was
required before the study of medicine could be begun, and four years
of medical studies were required, with a subsequent year of practice
under a physician's direction, before a license for independent
practice could be issued, then the scientific character of the medical
schools and therefore of the universities to which they were attached
is placed beyond all doubt. These are the terms of the law issued by
the Emperor Frederick II. for the Two Sicilies. That, in substance, it
applied to other countries we learn from the fact that the charters of
medical schools granted by the Popes at this time require proper
university preliminary studies, and four or five years at medicine
before the degree of Doctor could be given. We know besides that in
the cities only those who were graduates of properly recognized
medical schools were allowed to practice medicine, so that there was
every encouragement for the maintenance of professional standards.
Indeed, strange as it may seem to our generation, the standards
of the Thirteenth Century in medical education were much higher than
our own, and their medical schools were doing fine work.</p>
<br/>
<h2>X. MAGNETISM.</h2>
<p>For proper understanding of the Thirteenth Century scholars, it is
especially important to appreciate their thoroughly scientific temper
of mind, their powers of observation, and their successful attainments
in science. I know no more compendious way of reaching the knowledge
of these qualities in the medieval mind, than a study of the letter of
Peregrinus, which we would in our time call a monograph on magnetism.
Brother Potamian, in his chapter in "Makers of Electricity" (Fordham
University Press, N. Y., 1909) on Peregrinus and Columbus, sums up the
very interesting contributions of this medieval student of magnetism
to the subject. The list of chapters alone in Peregrinus' monograph
(Epistola) makes it very clear how deep were his interests and how
thoroughly practical his investigations.</p>
<p class="image">
<ANTIMG alt="" src="images/i442.jpg" border=1><br/>
THE DOUBLE PIVOTED NEEDLE OF PEREGRINUS.</p>
<p>They are:—"Part I., Chapter i, purpose of this work; 2,
qualifications of the experimenter; 3, characteristics of a good
lodestone; 4, how to distinguish the poles of a lodestone; 5, how to
tell which pole is north and which is south; 6, how one lodestone
attracts another; 7, how iron touched by a lodestone turns toward the
poles of the world; 8, how a lodestone attracts iron; 9, why the north
pole of one lodestone attracts the south pole of another, and vice
versa; 10, an inquiry into the natural virtue of the lodestone.</p>
<p>"Part II., Chapter 1, construction of an instrument for measuring the
azimuth of the sun, the moon or any star then in the horizon; 2,
construction of a better instrument for the same purpose; 3, the art
of making a wheel of perpetual motion."</p>
<p>In order to illustrate what Peregrinus accomplished it has seemed
worth while to reproduce here the sketches which illustrate his
epistle. We have the double pivoted needle and the first pivoted
compass.</p>
<p>In the light of certain recent events a passage from the "New Naval
History or Complete Review of the British Marine" (London, 1757) is of
special interest. It illustrates perhaps the new confidence that came
to men in sailing to long distances as the result of the
realization of the practical value of the magnetic needle during the
Thirteenth Century.</p>
<p class="image">
<ANTIMG alt="" src="images/i443.jpg" border=1><br/>
FIRST PIVOTED COMPASS (PEREGRINUS, 1269).</p>
<p>"In the year 1360 it is recorded that a friar of Oxford called
Nicholas de Linna (of Lynn), being a good astronomer, went in company
with others to the most northern island, and thence traveled alone,
and that he went to the North Pole, by means of his skill in magic, or
the black art; but this magic or black art may probably have been
nothing more than a knowledge of the magnetic needle or compass, found
out about sixty years before, though not in common use until many
years after."</p>
<br/>
<h2>XI. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES, EVOLUTION, RECAPITULATION.</h2>
<p>Of course only those who are quite unfamiliar with the history of
philosophic thought are apt to think that the theory of evolution is
modern. Serious students of biology are familiar with the long history
of the theory, and especially its anticipations by the Greeks. Very
few know, however, that certain phases of evolutionary theory
attracted not a little attention from the scholastic philosophers. It
would not be difficult to find expressions in Roger Bacon and Albertus
Magnus, that would serve to show that they thought not only of the
possibility of some very intimate relation of species but of
developmental connections. The great teacher of the time, St. Thomas
Aquinas, has some striking expressions in the matter, which deserve to
be quoted, because he is the most important representative of the
philosophy and science of the century and the one whose works most
influenced succeeding generations. In the lecture on Medieval
Scientific Universities, published in "Education, How Old the New"
(Fordham University Press, N. Y., 1910), I called particular attention
to this phase of St. Thomas' teaching. Two quotations will serve to
make it clear here.</p>
<p>Prof. Osborne, in "From the Greeks to Darwin," quotes Aquinas'
commentary on St. Augustine's opinion with regard to the origin of
things as they are. Augustine declared that the Creator had simply
brought into life the seeds of things, and given these the power
to develop. Aquinas, expounding Augustine, says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"As to production of plants, Augustine holds a different view, …
for some say that on the third day plants were actually produced,
each in his kind—a view favored by the superficial reading of
Scripture. But Augustine says that the earth is then said to have
brought forth grass and trees <i>causaliter</i>; that is, it then
received power to produce them." (Quoting Genesis ii:4): "For in
those first days, … God made creation primarily or <i>causaliter</i>,
and then rested from His work."</p>
<p>Like expressions might be quoted from him, and other writers of the
Thirteenth Century might well be cited in confirmation of the fact
that while these great teachers of the Middle Ages thoroughly
recognize the necessity for creation to begin with and the placing by
the Creator of some power in living things that enables them to
develop, they were by no means bound to the thought that all living
species were due to special creations. They even did not hesitate to
teach the possibility of the lower order of living beings at least
coming into existence by spontaneous generation, and would probably
have found no difficulty in accepting a theory of descent with the
limitations that most scientific men of our generation are prone to
demand for it.</p>
<p>Lest it should be thought that this is a mere accidental agreement
with modern thought, due much more to a certain looseness of terms
than to actual similarity of view, it seems well to point out how
close St. Thomas came to that thought in modern biology, which is
probably considered to be one of our distinct modern contributions to
the theory of evolution, though, in recent years, serious doubts have
been thrown on it. It is expressed by the formula of Herbert Spencer,
"Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny." According to this, the completed
being repeats in the course of its development the history of the
race, that is to say, the varying phases of foetal development from
the single cell in which it originates up to the perfect being of the
special type as it is born into the world, retrace the history by
which from the single cell being the creature in question has
gradually developed.</p>
<p>It is very curious to find that St. Thomas Aquinas, in his teaching
with regard to the origin and development of the human being, says,
almost exactly, what the most ardent supporters of this so-called
fundamental biogenetic law proclaimed during the latter half of the
Nineteenth Century, thinking they were expressing an absolutely new
thought. He says that "the higher a form is in the scale of being and
the farther it is removed from mere material form, the more
intermediate forms must be passed through before the finally perfect
form is reached. Therefore, in the generation of animal and man—
these having the most perfect forms—there occur many intermediate
forms in generations, and consequently destruction, because the
generation of one being is the destruction of another." St. Thomas
draws the ultimate conclusions from this doctrine without hesitation.
He proclaims that the human material is first animated by a vegetative
soul or principle of life, and then by an animal soul, and only
ultimately when the matter has been properly prepared for it by a
rational soul. He said: "The vegetative soul, therefore, which is
first in embryo, while it lives the life of a plant, is destroyed, and
there succeeds a more perfect soul, which is at once nutrient and
sentient, and for that time the embryo lives the life of an animal:
upon the destruction of this there succeeds the rational soul, infused
from without."</p>
<br/>
<h2>XII. THE POPE OF THE CENTURY.</h2>
<p>The absence of a chapter on the Pope of the Century has always seemed
a lacuna in the previous editions of this book. Pope Innocent III.,
whose pontificate began just before the century opened, and occupied
the first fifteen years of it, well deserves a place beside Francis
the Saint, Thomas the Scholar, Dante the Poet, and Louis the Monarch
of this great century. More than any other single individual he was
responsible for the great development of the intellectual life that
took place, but at the same time his wonderfully broad influence
enabled him to initiate many of the movements that meant most for
human uplift and for the alleviation of suffering in this period. It
was in Councils of the Church summoned by him that the important
legislation was passed requiring the development of schools, the
foundation of colleges in every diocese and of universities in
important metropolitan sees. What he accomplished for hospitals has
been well told by Virchow, from whom I quote a magnanimous tribute in
the chapter on the Foundation of City Hospitals. The legislation of
Innocent III. did much to encourage, and yet to regulate properly the
religious orders of this time engaged in charitable work. Besides
doing so much for charity, he was a stern upholder of morals. As more
than one king of the time realized while Innocent was Pope, there
could be no trifling with marriage vows.</p>
<p>On the other hand, while Innocent was so stern as to the enforcement
of marriage laws, his wonderfully judicious character and his care for
the weak and the innocent can be particularly noted in his treatment
of the children in these cases. While he compelled recalcitrant kings
to take back the wives they would repudiate, and put away other women
who had won their affections, he did not hesitate to make due
provision as far as possible for the illegitimate children. Pirie
Gordon, in his recent life of Pope Innocent III., notes that he
invariably legitimated the offspring of these illegal unions of kings,
and even declared them capable of succession. He would not visit the
guilt of the parent on the innocent offspring.</p>
<p>Innocent did more to encourage the idea of international arbitration
than anyone up to his time. During his period more than once he was
the arbitrator to whom rival national claims that might have led to
war were referred. Probably his greatest claim on our admiration in
the modern time is his attitude toward the Jews. In this he is
centuries ahead of his time and, indeed, the policy that he laid down
is far ahead of what is accorded to them by many of the nations even
at the present time, and it must not be forgotten that it is only
during the past hundred years that the Jew has come to have any real
privileges comparable to those accorded to other men. At a time when
the Jew had no real rights in law, Innocent insisted on according them
all the rights of men. His famous edict in this regard is well known.
"Let no Christian by violence compel them to come dissenting or
unwilling to Baptism. Further let no Christian venture maliciously to
harm their persons without a judgment of the civil power, to carry off
their property or change their good customs which they have had
hitherto in that district which they inhabit." When, in addition to
all this, it is recalled that he was a distinguished scholar and
graduate of the University of Paris, looked up to as one of the
intellectual geniuses of the time, the author of a treatise "On the
Contempt of the World" at a time when the kings of the earth were
obeying him, known for his personal piety and for his thorough
regulation of his own household, something of the greatness of the man
will be appreciated. No wonder that historians who have taken up the
special study of his career have always been won over to deep personal
admiration of him, and though many of them began prejudiced in his
regard, practically all of them were converted to be his sincere
admirers.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XIII. INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION.</h2>
<p>During the Peace Conference in New York in 1908 I was on the programme
with Mr. William T. Stead of London, the editor of the English <i>Review
of Reviews</i>, who was very much interested in the volume on the
Thirteenth Century, and who suggested that one chapter in the book
should have been devoted to the consideration of what was accomplished
for peace and for International Arbitration during this century. There
is no doubt that there developed, as the result of many Papal decrees,
a greater tendency than has existed ever before or since, to refer
quarrels between nations that would ordinarily end in war to decision
by some selected umpire. Usually the Pope, as the head of the
Christian Church, to which all the nations of the civilized world
belonged, was selected as the arbitrator. This international
arbitration, strengthened by the decrees of Pope Innocent III., Pope
Honorius III. and Pope Alexander III., developed in a way that is well
worth while studying, and that has deservedly been the subject of
careful investigation since the present peace movement began.
Certainly the outlook for the securing of peace by international
arbitration was better at this time than it has been at any time
since. What a striking example, for instance, is the choice of King
Louis of France as the umpire in the dispute between the Barons and
the King of England, which might have led to war. Louis' position with
regard to the Empire and the Papacy was to a great extent that of a
pacificator, and his influence for peace was felt everywhere
throughout Europe. The spirit of the century was all for arbitration
and the adjudication of intranational as well as international
difficulties by peaceful means.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XIV. BIBLE REVISION.</h2>
<p>Most people will be quite sure that at least the question of Bible
revision with critical study of text and comparative investigation of
sources was reserved for our time. The two orders of friars founded in
the early part of the Thirteenth Century, however, devoted themselves
to the task of supplying to the people a thoroughly reliable edition
of the Scriptures. The first systematic revision was made by the
Dominicans about 1236. After twenty years this revision was set aside
as containing too many errors, and another Dominican correction
replaced it. Then came that great scholar, Hugh of St. Cher, known
later as the Cardinal of Santa Sabina, the author of the first great
Biblical Concordance. His Bible studies did much to clarify
obscurities in the text. Sometime about 1240 he organized a commission
of friars for the revision of what was known as the Paris Exemplar,
the Bible text that was most in favor at that time. The aim of Hugh of
St. Cher was to establish the old Vulgate of St. Jerome, the text
which received this name during this century, but with such revision
as would make this version correspond as nearly as possible to the
Hebrew and the Greek.</p>
<p>This activity on the part of the Dominicans was rivaled by the
Franciscans. We might not expect to find the great scientist, Roger
Bacon, as a Biblical scholar and reviser, but such he was, working
with Willermus de Mara, to whom, according to Father Denifle, late the
Librarian of the Vatican Library, must be attributed the title given
him by Roger Bacon of Sapientissimus Vir. The Dominicans under the
leadership of Hugh of St. Cher with high ideals had hoped to achieve a
perfect primitive text. The version made by de Mara, however, with the
approval and advice of Bacon, was only meant to bring out St. Jerome's
text as perfectly as possible. These two revisions made in the
Thirteenth Century are typical of all the efforts that men have made
since in that same direction. Contrary to usual present day
impressions, they are characterized by critical scholarship, and
probably represent as great a contribution to Biblical lore as was
made by any other century.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XV. FICTION OF THE CENTURY.</h2>
<p>Ordinarily it would be presumed that life was taken entirely too
seriously during the Thirteenth Century for the generation to pay much
attention to fiction. In a certain sense this is true. In the sense,
however, that they had no stories worthy of the great literature in
other departments it would be quite untrue. There is a naiveté about
their story telling that rather amuses our sophisticated age, yet all
the elements of our modern fiction are to be found in the stories that
were popular during the century, and arranged with a dramatic effect
that must have given them a wide appeal.</p>
<p>The most important contribution to the fiction of the century is to be
found in the collection known as the <i>Cento Novelle Antiche</i> or
"Hundred Ancient Tales," which contains the earliest prose fiction
extant in Italian. Many of these come from a period anterior to Dante,
and it is probable from what Manni, the learned editor of the
<i>Novelliero</i>, says, that they were written out in the Thirteenth
Century and collected in the early part of the Fourteenth Century.
They did not all originate in Italy, and, indeed, Manni considers that
most of them derived their origin from Provence. They represent the
interest of the century in fiction and in anecdotal literature.</p>
<p>As for the longer fiction, the pure love story of the modern time, we
have one typical example of it in that curious relic of the Middle
Ages, "Aucassin and Nicolette." The manuscript which preserved this
for us comes from the Thirteenth Century. Perhaps, as M. Paris
suggests, the tale itself is from the preceding century. At least it
was the interest of the Thirteenth Century in it that saved it for us.
For those who think that the love romance in any of its features is
novel, though we call it by that name, or that there has been any
development of human nature which enables the writer of love stories
to appeal to other and deeper, or purer and loftier feelings in his
loved ones now than in the past, all that is needed, as it seems to
me, is a casual reading of this pretty old song-story.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most interesting feature of this oldest specimen of modern
fiction is the number of precious bits of psychologic analysis or, at
least, what is called that in the recent time, which occur in the
course of it. For instance, when Aucassin is grieving because he
cannot find Nicolette he wanders through the forest on horseback, and
is torn by trees and brambles, but "he feels it not at all." On the
other hand, when he finds Nicolette, though he is suffering from a
dislocated shoulder, he no longer feels any pain in it, because of his
joy at the meeting, and Nicolette (first aid to the injured) is able
to replace the dislocated part without difficulty (the trained nurse
in fiction) because he is so happy as not to notice the pain
(psychotherapy). The herdsman whom he meets wonders that Aucassin,
with plenty of money and victuals, should grieve so much over the loss
of Nicolette, while he has so much more cause to grieve over the
loss of an ox, which means starvation to him. Toward the end of the
story we have the scene in which Nicolette, stolen from home when very
young, and utterly unable to remember anything about her childhood,
has brought back to her memory by the view of the city of Carthage
forgotten events of her childhood (subconscious memory). These
represent naively enough, it is true, the study of the mind under
varying conditions that has in recent years been given the rather
ambitious name of psychology in fiction.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XVI. GREAT ORATORS.</h2>
<p>Without a chapter on the great orators of the period an account of the
Thirteenth Century is quite incomplete. Great as were the other forms
of literature, epic, lyric and religious poetry and the prose writing,
it is probable that the oratory of the time surpassed them all. When
we recall that the Cid, the Arthur Legends, the Nibelungen, the
Meistersingers, and the Minnesingers, Reynard the Fox, the Romance of
the Rose, the Troubadours, and even Dante are included in the other
term of the comparison thus made, it may seem extravagant, but what we
know of the effect of the orators of the time fully justifies it. Just
before the Thirteenth Century, great religious orators swayed the
hearts and minds of people, to the organization of the Crusades. At
the beginning of the Thirteenth Century the mendicant orders were
organized, and their important duties were preaching and teaching. The
Dominicans were of course the Order of Preachers, and we have
traditions of their sway over the minds of the people of the time
which make it very clear that their power was equal to that exerted in
any other department of human expression. There are traditions
particularly of the oratory of the Dominicans among the German races,
which serve to show how even a phlegmatic people can be stirred to the
very depths of their being by the eloquent spoken word. In France the
traditions are almost as explicit in this matter, and there are
remains of religious orations that fully confirm the reputation of the
orators of the time.</p>
<p>Rhetoric and oratory was studied very assiduously. Cicero was the
favorite reading of the great preachers of the time, and we find the
court preachers of St. Louis, Étienne de Bourbon, Elinand, Guillaume
de Perrault and others appealing to his precepts as the infallible
guide to oratory. Quintilian was not neglected, however, and Symmachus
and Sidonius Apollinaris were also faithfully studied. If we turn to
the speeches that are incorporated in the epics, as, for instance, the
Cid, or in some of the historians, as Villehardouin, we have definite
evidence of the thorough command of the writers of the time over the
forms of oratory. M. Paullin Paris, the authority in our time on the
literature of the Thirteenth Century, quotes a passage from
Villehardouin in which Canon de Bethune speaks in the name of
the French chiefs of the Fourth Crusade to the Emperors Isaac and
Alexis Comnenus. M. Paris does not hesitate to declare that the
passage is equal to many of the same kind that have been much admired
in the classic authors. It has the force, the finish and the
compression of Thucydides.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XVII. GREAT BEGINNINGS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE.</h2>
<p>Only the fact that this work was getting beyond the number of printed
pages determined for it in the first edition prevented the insertion
of a chapter especially devoted to the great beginnings of English
literature in the Thirteenth Century. The most important contributions
to Early English were made at this period. The Ormulum and Layamon's
Brut, both written probably during the first decade of the Thirteenth
Century, have become familiar to all students of Old English. Mr.
Gollancz goes so far as to say that "The Ormulum is perhaps the most
valuable document we possess for the history of English sound. Orm was
a purist in orthography as well as in vocabulary, and may fittingly be
described as the first of English phoneticians."</p>
<p class="image">
<ANTIMG alt="" src="images/i450.jpg" border=1><br/>
MANUSCRIPT OF ORMULUM (THIRTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
<p>Of Layamon, Garnett said in his "English Literature" (Garnett and
Gosse): "It would have sufficed for the fame of Layamon had he been no
more than the first minstrel to celebrate Arthur in English song, but
his own pretensions as a poet are by no means inconsiderate. He is
everywhere vigorous and graphic, and improved upon his predecessor,
Wace, alike by his additions and expansions, and by his more spiritual
handling of the subjects common to both." Even more important in the
history of language than these is <i>The Ancren Riwle</i> (The Anchorites'
Rule). This was probably written by Richard Poore, Bishop of
Salisbury, for three Cistercian nuns. Its place in English literature
may be judged from a quotation or two with regard to it. Mr.
Kington-Oliphant says: "<i>The Ancren Riwle</i> is the forerunner of a
wondrous change in our speech. More than anything else written outside
the Danelagh, that piece has influenced our standard English."
Garnett says: "<i>The Ancren Riwle</i> is a work of great literary merit
and, in spite of its linguistic innovations, most of which have
established themselves, well deserves to be described as 'one of the
most perfect models of simple eloquent prose in our language.'"</p>
<p>The religious poetry of the time is not behind the great prose of <i>The
Ancren Riwle</i>, and one of them, the <i>Luve Ron</i> (Love Song) of Thomas
de Hales, is very akin to the spirit of that work, and has been well
described as "a contemplative lyric of the simplest, noblest mold."
Garnett says: "The reflections are such as are common to all who have
in all ages pleaded for the higher life under whatsoever form, and
deplored the frailty and transitoriness of man's earthly estate. Two
stanzas on the latter theme as expressed in a modernized version might
almost pass for Villon's:—</p>
<p>"Paris and Helen, where are they,<br/>
Fairest in beauty, bright to view?<br/>
Amadas, Tristrem, Ideine, yea<br/>
Isold, that lived with love so true?<br/>
And Caesar, rich in power and sway,<br/>
Hector the strong, with might to do?<br/>
All glided from earth's realm away,<br/>
Like shaft that from the bow-string flew.<br/>
<br/>
"It is as if they ne'er were here.<br/>
Their wondrous woes have been a' told,<br/>
That it is sorrow but to hear;<br/>
How anguish killed them sevenfold,<br/>
And how with dole their lives were drear;<br/>
Now is their heat all turned to cold.<br/>
Thus this world gives false hope, false fear;<br/>
A fool, who in her strength is bold."<br/></p>
<br/>
<h2>XVIII. GREAT ORIGINS IN MUSIC.</h2>
<p>In the chapter on the Great Latin Hymns a few words were said about
one phase of the important musical development in the Thirteenth
Century, that of plain chant. In that simple mode the musicians of the
Thirteenth Century succeeded in reaching a climax of expression of
human feeling in such chants as the <i>Exultet</i> and the <i>Lamentation</i>
that has never been surpassed. Something was also said about the
origin of part music, but so little that it might easily be thought
that in this the century lagged far behind its achievements in other
departments. M, Pierre Aubry has recently published (1909) <i>Cent
Motets du XIIIe Siècle</i> in three volumes. His first volume contains a
photographic reproduction of the manuscript of Bamberg from which the
hundred musical modes are secured, the second a transcription in
modern musical notation of the old music, and the third volume studies
and commentaries on the music and the times. If anything were needed
to show how utterly ignorant we have been of the interests and
artistic achievements of the Middle Ages, it is this book of M. Aubry.</p>
<p>Victor Hugo said that music dates from the Sixteenth Century, and it
has been quite the custom, even for people who thought they knew
something about music, to declare that we had no remains of any music
before the Sixteenth Century worth while talking about. Ancient music
is probably lost to us forever, but M. Aubry has shown conclusively
that we have abundant remains to show us that the musicians of the
Thirteenth Century devoted themselves to their art with as great
success as their rivals in the other Gothic arts and, indeed, they
thought that they had nearly exhausted its possibilities and tried to
make a science of it. By their supposedly scientific rules they
succeeded in binding music so firmly as to bring about its obscuration
in succeeding centuries. This is, however, the old story of what has
happened in every art whenever genius succeeds in finding a great mode
of expression. A formula is evolved which often binds expression so
rigorously as to prevent natural development.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XIX. A CHAPTER ON MANNERS.</h2>
<p>Whatever the people of the Middle Ages may have been in morals, their
manners are supposed to have been about as lacking in refinement as
possible. As for nearly everything else, however, this impression is
utterly false, and is due to the assumption that because we are
better-mannered than the generations of a century or two ago,
therefore we must be almost infinitely in advance, in the same
respect, of the people of seven centuries ago. There are ups and downs
in manners, however, as there are in education, and the beginnings of
the formal setting forth of modern manners are, like everything else
modern, to be found in the Thirteenth Century. About the year 1215
Thomasin Zerklaere wrote in German a rather lengthy treatise, <i>Der
Wälsche Gast</i>, on manners. It contains most of the details of polite
conduct that have been accepted in later times. Not long afterwards,
John Garland, an Oxford man who had lived in France for many years,
wrote a book on manners for English young men. He meant this to be a
supplement to Dionysius Cato's treatise, written probably in the
Fourth Century in Latin, which was concerned more with morals than
manners and had been very popular during the Middle Ages. Garland's
book was the first of a series of such treatises on manners which
appeared in England at the close of the Middle Ages. Many of them have
been recently republished, and are a revelation of the development of
manners among our English forefathers. The book is usually alluded to
in literature as Liber Faceti, or as Facet; the full title was, "The
Book of the Polite Man, Teaching Manners for Men, Especially for Boys,
as a Supplement to those which were Omitted by the Most Moral Cato."
The "Romance of the Rose" has, of course, many references to manners
which show us how courtesy was cultivated in France. In Italy, Dante's
teacher, Bruneto Latini, published his "Tesoretto," which treats of
manners, and which was soon followed by a number of similar treatises
in Italian. In a word, we must look to the Thirteenth Century
for the origin, or at least the definite acceptance, of most of those
conventions which make for kindly courtesy among men, and have made
possible human society and friendly intercourse in our modern sense of
those words.</p>
<p>We are prone to think that refinement in table manners is a matter of
distinctly modern times. In "The Babees' Book," which is one of the
oldest books of English manners, the date of which in its present form
is about the middle of the Fourteenth Century, many of our rules of
politeness at table are anticipated. This book is usually looked upon
as a compilation from preceding times, and the original of it is
supposed to be from the preceding century. A few quotations from it
will show how closely it resembles our own instructions to children:</p>
<p>"Thou shalt not laugh nor speak nothing<br/>
While thy mouth be full of meat or drink;<br/>
Nor sup thou not with great sounding<br/>
Neither pottage nor other thing.<br/>
At meat cleanse not thy teeth, nor pick<br/>
With knife or straw or wand or stick.<br/>
While thou holdest meat in mouth, beware<br/>
To drink; that is an unhonest chare;<br/>
And also physic forbids it quite.<br/>
Also eschew, without strife.<br/>
To foul the board cloth with thy knife.<br/>
<br/>
Nor blow not on thy drink or meat,<br/>
Neither for cold, neither for heat.<br/>
Nor bear with meat thy knife to mouth.<br/>
Whether thou be set by strong or couth.<br/>
Lean not on elbow at thy meat,<br/>
Neither for cold nor for heat.<br/>
Dip not thy thumb thy drink into;<br/>
Thou art uncourteous if thou it do.<br/>
In salt-cellar if thou put<br/>
Or fish or flesh that men see it,<br/>
That is a vice, as men me tells;<br/>
And great wonder it would be else."<br/></p>
<p>The directions, "how to behave thyself in talking with any man," in
one of these old books, are very minute and specific:—</p>
<p>"If a man demand a question of thee.<br/>
In thine answer making be not too hasty;<br/>
Weigh well his words, the case understand<br/>
Ere an answer to make thou take in hand;<br/>
Else may he judge in thee little wit,<br/>
To answer to a thing and not hear it.<br/>
Suffer his tale whole out to be told.<br/>
Then speak thou mayst, and not be controlled;<br/>
<br/>
In audible voice thy words do thou utter,<br/>
Not high nor low, but using a measure.<br/>
Thy words see that thou pronounce plaine.<br/>
And that they spoken be not in vain;<br/>
In uttering whereon keep thou an order,<br/>
Thy matter thereby thou shalt much forder<br/>
Which order if thou do not observe.<br/>
From the purpose needs must thou swerve."<br/></p>
<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<h2>XX. TEXTILE WORK OF THE CENTURY.</h2>
<p>A special chapter might easily have been written on the making of fine
cloths of various kinds, most of which reached their highest
perfection in the Thirteenth Century. Velvet, for instance, is
mentioned for the first time in England in 1295, but existed earlier
on the continent, and cut velvets with elaborate patterns were made in
Genoa exactly as we know finished velvet now. Baudekin or Baldichin, a
very costly textile of gold and silk largely used in altar coverings
and hangings, came to very high perfection in this century also. The
canopy for the Blessed Sacrament is, because of its manufacture from
this cloth, still called in Italy a <i>baldichino</i>. Chaucer in the next
century tells how the streets in royal processions were "hanged with
cloth of gold and not with serge." Satin also was first manufactured
very probably in the Thirteenth Century. It is first mentioned in
England about the middle of the Fourteenth Century, when Bishop
Grandison made a gift of choice satins to Exeter Cathedral. The word
satin, however, is derived from the silks of the Mediterranean, called
by the Italians <i>seta</i> and by the Spanish <i>seda</i>, and the art of
making it was brought to perfection during the preceding century.</p>
<p>The art of making textiles ornamented with elaborate designs of animal
forms and of floral ornaments reached its highest perfection in the
Thirteenth Century. In one of the Chronicles we learn that in 1295 St.
Paul's in London owned a hanging "patterned with wheels and two-headed
birds." We have accounts of such elaborate textile ornamentation as
peacocks, lions, griffins and the like. Almeria in Andalusia was a
rich city in the Thirteenth Century, noted for its manufactures of
textiles. A historian of the period writes: "Christians of all nations
came to its port to buy and sell. Then they traveled to other parts of
the interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such
goods as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colors are
manufactured in Almeria." Marco-Polo says of the Persians that, when
he passed through that country (end of the Thirteenth Century), "there
are excellent artificers in the city who make wonderful things in
gold, silk and embroidery. The women make excellent needlework in silk
with all sorts of creatures very admirably wrought therein." He also
reports the King of Tartary as wearing on his birthday a most precious
garment of gold, and tells of the girdles of gold and silver, with
pearls and ornaments of great price on them.</p>
<p>Unfortunately English embroidery fell off very greatly at the time of
the Wars of the Roses. These wars constitute the main reason why
nearly every form of intellectual accomplishment and artistic
achievement went into decadence during the Fourteenth Century, from
which they were only just emerging when the so-called
reformation, with its confiscation of monastic property, and its
destruction of monastic life, came to ruin schools of all kinds, and,
above all, those in which the arts and crafts had been taught so
successfully. France at the end of the Thirteenth Century saw a
similar rise to excellence of textile and embroidery work. In 1299
there is an allusion to one Clément le Brodeur who furnished a
magnificent cope for the Count of Artois. In 1316 a beautifully
decorated set of hangings was made for the Queen by Gautier de
Poulleigny. There are other references to work done in the early part
of the Fourteenth Century, which serve to show the height which art
had reached in this mode during the Thirteenth Century. In Ireland,
while the finer work had its due place, the making of woolens was the
specialty, and the dyeing of woolen cloth made the Irish famous and
brought many travelers from the continent to learn the secret.</p>
<p>The work done in England in embroidery attracted the attention of the
world. English needlework became a proverb. In the body of the book I
mentioned the cope of Ascoli, but there were many such beautiful
garments. The Syon cope is, in the opinion of Miss Addison, author of
"Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages," the most conspicuous example of
the medieval embroiderers' art. It was made by nuns about the middle
of the Thirteenth Century, that is, just about the same time as the
cope of Ascoli, but in a convent near Coventry. According to Miss
Addison "it is solid stitchery on a canvas ground, wrought about with
divers colors' on green. The design is laid out in a series of
interlacing square forms, with rounded and barbed sides and corners.
In each of these is a figure or a Scriptural scene. The orphreys, or
straight borders, which go down on both fronts of the cope, are
decorated with heraldic charges. Much of the embroidery is raised, and
wrought in the stitch known as Opus Anglicanum. The effect was
produced by pressing a heated metal knob into the work at such points
as were to be raised. The real embroidery was executed on a flat
surface, and then bossed up by this means until it looked like
bas-relief. The stitches in every part run in zig-zags, the vestments,
and even the nimbi about the heads, are all executed with the stitches
slanting in one direction, from the center of the cope outward,
without consideration of the positions of the figures. Each face is
worked in circular progression outward from the center, as well. The
interlaces are of crimson, and look well on the green ground. The
wheeled cherubim is well developed in the design of this famous cope,
and is a pleasing decorative bit of archaic ecclesiasticism. In the
central design of the Crucifixion, the figure of the Lord is rendered
in silver on a gold ground."</p>
<br/>
<h2>XXI. GLASS-MAKING.</h2>
<p>A chapter might well have been devoted to Thirteenth Century
glass-making quite apart from the stained glass of the cathedral
windows. All over Europe some of the most wonderful specimens of
colored glass we possess were made in the Thirteenth Century. Recently
Mr. Frederick Rolfe has looked up for me Venetian glass, of the three
centuries, the Twelfth, the Thirteenth and the Fourteenth. He says
Twelfth Century glass is small in form, simple and ignorant in model,
excessively rich and brilliant in colors; the artist evidently had no
ideal, but the Byzantine of jewels and emeralds.</p>
<p class="cite">
"Thirteenth Century glass is absolutely different. The specimens are
pretty. The work of the Beroviero family is large and splendid in
form, exquisite and sometimes elaborate in model, mostly crystal
glass reticently studded with tiny colored gem-like knobs. There are
also fragments of two windows pieced together, and missing parts
filled with the best which modern Murano can do. These show the
celebrated Beroviero Ruby glass (secret lost) of marvelous depth and
brilliancy in comparison with which the modern work is merely
watery. The ancient is just like a decanter of port-wine.
<br/><br/>
"Fourteenth Century returns to the wriggling ideal and exiguous form
of the Twelfth Century, and fails woefully in brilliance of color.
It is small and dull and undistinguished. One may find out what war
or pest afflicted Murano at this epoch to explain the singular
degradation."</p>
<p>This same curious degradation took place in the manufacture of most
art objects during the Fourteenth Century. One would feel in Mr.
Rolfe's words like looking for some physical cause for it. The
decadence is so universal, however, that it seems not unlikely that it
follows some little known human law, according to which, after man has
reached a certain perfection of expression in an art or craft, there
comes, in the striving after originality yet variety, an overbalancing
of the judgment, a vitiation of the taste in the very luxuriance of
beauty discovered that leads to decay. It is the very contradiction of
the supposed progress of mankind through evolution, but it is
illustrated in many phases of human history and, above all, the
history of art, letters, education and the arts and crafts.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XXII. INVENTIONS.</h2>
<p>Most people are sure to think that, at least in the matter of
inventions, ours is the only time worth considering. The people of the
Thirteenth Century, however, made many wonderful inventions and
adaptations of mechanical principles, as well as many ingenious
appliances. Their faculty of invention was mainly devoted to work in
other departments besides that of mechanics. They were inventors of
designs in architecture, in decoration, in furnishings, in textiles,
and in the beautiful things of life generally. Their inventiveness in
the arts and crafts was especially admirable and, indeed, has been
fruitful in our time, since, with the reawakening in this matter, we
have gone back to imitate their designs. Good authorities declare
these to be endless in number and variety. Such mechanical inventions
as were needed for the building of their great cathedrals, their
municipal buildings, abbeys, castles, piers, bridges and the like were
admirably worked out. Necessity is the mother of invention, and
whenever needs asserted themselves, these old generations responded to
them, very successfully. There are, however, a number of inventions
that would attract attention even, in the modern time for their
practical usefulness and ingenuity. With the growth of the
universities writing became much more common, textbooks were needed,
and so paper was invented. With the increase of reading, to replace
teaching by hearing, spectacles were invented. Time became more
precious, clocks were greatly improved, and we hear of the invention
of something like an alarm clock, an apparatus which, after a fixed
number of hours, woke the monk of the abbey whose duty it was to
arouse the others. Organs for churches were greatly improved, bells
were perfected, and everything else in connection with the churches so
well fashioned that we still use them in their Thirteenth Century
forms. Gunpowder was not invented, but a great many new uses were
found for it, and Roger Bacon even suggested, as I have said, that
sometime explosives would enable boats to move by sea without sails or
oars, or carriages to move on land without horses or men. Roger Bacon
even suggested the possibility of airships, described how one might be
made, the wings of which would be worked by a windlass, and thought
that he could make it. His friend and pupil, Peregrinus, invented the
double pivoted compass, and, as the first perpetual-motion faddist,
described how he would set about making a magnetic engine that he
thought would run forever. When we recall how much they accomplished
mechanically in the construction of buildings, it becomes evident that
any mechanical problem that these generations wanted solved they
succeeded in solving very well. What they have left us as inventions
are among the most useful appliances that we have. Without paper and
without spectacles, the intellectual world would be in a sad case,
indeed. Many of the secrets of their inventions in the arts and crafts
have been lost, and, in spite of all our study, we have not succeeded
in rediscovering them.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XXIII. INDUSTRY AND TRADE.</h2>
<p>We are rather inclined to think that large organizations of industry
and trade were reserved for comparatively modern times. To think so,
however, is to forget the place occupied by the monasteries and
convents in the olden time. We have heard much of the lazy monks, but
only from those who know nothing at all about them. Idleness in the
monasteries was one of the accusations made by the commission set to
furnish evidence to Henry VIII. on which he might suppress the
monasteries, but every modern historian has rejected the findings of
that commission as false. Many forms of manufacture were carried on in
the monasteries and convents. They were the principal bookmakers
and bookbinders. To a great extent they were the manufacturers of art
fabrics and arts-and-crafts work intended for church use, but also for
the decoration of luxurious private apartments. Most of us have known
something of all this finer work, but not that they had much to do
with cruder industries also. They were millers, cloth-makers,
brush- and broom-makers, shoemakers for themselves and their tenantry;
knitting was done in the convents, and all the finer fancy work. A
recent meeting of the Institute of Mining Engineers in England brought
out some discussion of coal mining in connection with the early
history of the coal mines in England. The records of many of the
English monasteries show that in early times the monks knew the value
of coal, and used it rather freely. They also mined it for others. The
monks at Tynemouth are known to have been mining coal on the Manor of
Tynemouth in 1269, and shipping it to a distance. At Durham and at
Finchale Abbey they were doing this also about the same time. It would
require special study to bring out the interesting details, but there
is abundant material not alone for a chapter, but for a volume on the
industries of the Thirteenth Century, which, like the education and
the literature and the culture of the time, we have thought
undeveloped, because we knew nothing of them.</p>
<p>The relation of the monasteries to trade, domestic and foreign, is
very well brought out in a paragraph of Mr. Ralph Adams Cram's book on
"The Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain" (New York, The Churchman Co.,
1905), in which he describes the remains at Beaulieu, which show the
place of that monastery, not by any means one of the most important in
England, in trade. For the benefit of their tenantry others had done
even more.
<p><p class="cite">
"Some idea of the power of one of these great monasteries may be
gained from traces still existing of the center of trade built up by
the monks outside their gates. Here, at the head of tide water, in a
most out-of-the-way spot, a great stone quay was constructed, to
which came ships from foreign lands. Near by was a great
marketplace, now, as then, called Cheapside, though commerce exists
there no longer. At the height of monastic glory the religious
houses were actually the chief centers of industry and civilization,
and around them grew up the eager villages, many of which now exist,
even though their impulse and original inspiration have long since
departed. Of course, the possessions of the abbey reached far away
from the walls in every direction, including many farms even at a
great distance, for the abbeys were then the great landowners, and
beneficent landlords they were as well, even in their last days, for
we have many records of the cruelty and hardships that came to the
tenants the moment the stolen lands came into the hands of laymen."</p>
<br/>
<h2>XXIV. FAIRS AND MARKETS.</h2>
<p>A chapter might well have been devoted to showing the significance of
those curious old institutions, the fairs and market days of the
Middle Ages. The country folk flocked into town, bringing with them
their produce, and found there gathered from many parts merchants come
to exchange and barter. The expense of maintaining a store all the
year around was done away with, and profits did not have to be large.
Exchanges were direct, and the profits of the middlemen were to a
great extent eliminated. It was distinctly to the advantage of the
poor, for the expenses of commerce were limited to the greatest
possible extent, and every advantage accrued to the customer.</p>
<p>Besides, these market days became days of innocent merriment,
amusement and diversion. Wandering purveyors of amusement followed the
fairs, and obtained their living from the generosity of the people who
were amused. These amusements were conducted out of doors, and with
very few of the objectionable features as regards hygiene and morality
that are likely to attach themselves to the same things in our day.
The amusement was what we would call now vaudeville, singing, dancing,
the exhibition of trained animals, acrobatic feats of various kinds,
so that we cannot very well say that our people are in advance of
their medieval forbears in such matters, since their taste is about
the same. Fairs and market days made country life less monotonous by
their regular recurrence, and so prevented that emptying of the
country into the city which we deprecate in our time. They had
economic, social, even moral advantages, that are worth while
studying.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XXV. INTENSIVE FARMING.</h2>
<p>We hear much of intensive farming in the modern time, and it is
supposed to be a distinctly modern invention mothered by the necessity
due to great increase of population. One of the most striking features
of the story of monasticism in the countries of Europe, however,
during the Middle Ages, and especially during the Thirteenth Century,
when so many of the greatest abbeys reached a climax of power and
influence and beauty of construction, is their successful devotion
paid to agriculture. In the modern time we are gradually learning the
lesson of growing larger and larger crops on the same area of ground
by proper selection of seed, and of developing cattle in such a way as
to make them most valuable as a by-product of farming. This is exactly
what the old monastic establishments did. At the beginning of the
Thirteenth Century many of them were situated in rather barren
regions, sometimes, indeed, surrounded by thick forests, but at the
end of the century all the great monastic establishments had succeeded
in making beautiful luxuriant gardens for themselves, and had taught
their numerous tenantry the great lessons of agricultural improvement
which made for plenty and happiness.</p>
<p>Many monasteries belonged to the same religious order, and the
traditions of these were carried from one to the other by visiting
monks or sometimes by the transfer of members of one community
to another. The monastic establishments were the great farmers of
Europe, and it was their proud boast that their farming lands, instead
of being exhausted from year to year, were rather increasing in value.
They doubtless had many secrets of farming that were lost and had to
be rediscovered in the modern time, just as in the arts and crafts,
for their success in farming was as noteworthy. Their knowledge of
trees must have been excellent, since they surrounded themselves with
fine forests, at times arranged so as to provide shady walks and
charming avenues. Their knowledge of simple farming must have been
thorough, for the farms of the monasteries were always the most
prosperous, and the tenantry were always the happiest. With the
traditions that we have especially in English history, this seems
almost impossible to credit, but these traditions, manufactured for a
purpose, have now been entirely discredited. We have learned in recent
years what wonderful scholars, architects, painters, teachers,
engineers these monks were, and so it is not surprising to find that
they had magnificently developed agricultural knowledge as well as
that of every other department in which they were particularly
interested.</p>
<br/>
<h2>XXVI. CARTOGRAPHY AND THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY.</h2>
<p>In the chapter on Great Explorers and The Foundation of Geography, in
the body of the book, much might have been said about maps and
map-making, for the Thirteenth Century was a great period in this
matter. Lecoy de la Marche among his studies of the Thirteenth Century
has included a volume of a collection of the maps of the Thirteenth
Century. If the purpose had been to make this a work of erudition
rather than of popular information, much might have been said of the
cartography of the time even from this work alone (<i>Receuil de Charles
du XIII e Siècle</i>, Paris, 1878). One of the great maps of the
Thirteenth Century, that on the Cathedral wall of Hereford, deserves a
place here. It was made just at the end of the Thirteenth Century. The
idea of its maker was to convey as much information as possible about
the earth, and not merely indicate its political divisions and the
relative size and position of the different parts. It is to a certain
extent at least a resume of history, of physical geography, and even
of geographical biology and anthropology, for it has indications as to
the dwelling-place of animals and curious types of men. It contains,
besides, references to interesting objects of other kinds. Because of
its interest I have reproduced the map itself, and the key to it with
explanations published at Hereford.</p>
<p class="image">
<ANTIMG alt="" src="images/i461.jpg" border=1><br/>
PRESERVED IN HEREFORD CATHEDRAL.</p>
<p class="center">
<i>Key to the Photograph of the Ancient Map of the World</i>.</p>
<SPAN name="opp463"></SPAN>
<p class="image">
<ANTIMG alt="" src="images/i_opp463.jpg" border=1><br/>
MAP OF THE WORLD (HEREFORD CATHEDRAL)</p>
<p>The Map is executed on a single sheet of vellum, 54 in. in breadth, by
63 in. in extreme height, it is fixed on a strong framework of oak. At
the top (Fig. 1) is a representation of the Last Judgment. Our Saviour
is represented in glory, and below is the Virgin Mary interceding for
mankind.</p>
<p>For convenience of reference the Key Map is divided into squares
marked by Roman capitals, with the more prominent objects in figures.
I.—Commencing with sq. 1. the circle marked by Fig. 2 represents the
Garden of Eden, with the four rivers, and Adam and Eve eating the
forbidden fruit. The remainder of the square, as also in II. and III.,
is occupied by India. At Fig. 3 is shown the expulsion of Adam and
Eve, to the right of which is shown a race of Giants, and to the left
the City of Enoch, and still further the Golden Mountains guarded by
Dragons. Below these mountains are shown a race of pigmies. In a space
bounded by two rivers is placed a crocodile, and immediately below a
female warrior. To the left of the latter are a pair of birds called
in the Map Alerions. The large river to the left is the Ganges.
II.—Shows one of the inhabitants of this part of India, who are said
to have but one foot, which is sufficiently large to serve as an
umbrella to shelter themselves from the sun. The city in the center is
Samarcand. III.—In which is seen an Elephant, to the left a Parrot. A
part of the Red Sea is also shown with the Island of Taprobana
(Ceylon), on which are shown two Dragons. It also bears an inscription
denoting that dragons and elephants are found there. The small Islands
shown are Crise, Argire, Ophir, and Frondisia (Aphrodisia).
IV.—Contains the Caspian Sea, below which is a figure holding its
tail in his hand, and which the author calls the Minotaur. To the left
is shown one of the Albani, who are said to see better at night than
in the daytime. Below are two warriors in combat with a Griffin (Fig.
27). V.—In the upper part are Bokhara and Thrace, in the latter of
which (Fig. 29) is shown the Pelican feeding its young, to the left a
singular figure representing the Cicones, and to the right the Camel,
in Bactria. Below to the left is the Tiger, and on the right an animal
with a human head and the body of a lion, called the Mantichora. Still
lower is seen Noah's ark (Fig. 28), in which are shown three human
figures, with beasts, birds and serpents. In the lower corner, at Fig.
26, is the Golden Fleece. VI.—The upper parts contain Babylonia, with
the City of Babylon (Fig. 4) on the river Euphrates, below which is
the city of Damascus, which has on its right an unknown animal called
the Marsok. To the right is Lot's wife turned into a pillar of salt
(Fig. 8). Decapolis and the River Jordan are near the bottom of the
square. Above the River Euphrates is a figure in a frame representing
the Patriarch Abraham's residence at Ur of the Chaldees. VII.—The Red
Sea (Figs. 5, 5) is the most conspicuous object here. In the fork
formed by it is shown the giving of the Tables of The Law on Mount
Sinai. Below, and touching the line (Fig. 6) showing the wanderings of
the Israelites, is seen the worship of the Golden Calf. The Dead Sea
and submerged Cities are shown lower down to the left, and between
this and the Red Sea is the Phoenix. At the bottom is a mythical
animal with long horns, called the Eale. VIII.—In the upper part is
the Monastery of St. Anthony in Ethiopia. The river to the left is the
Nile, between this and a great interior lake (Figs. 7, 7) is a figure
of Satyr. Beyond the lake, and extending a distance down the Map
(Figs. 12, 12, 12), are various singular figures, supposed to
represent the races dwelling there. In a circular island to the left
(Meroe) is a man riding a crocodile, and at the bottom left-hand
corner is a centaur. IX.—The upper part is Scythia, and shows some
cannibals, below which (Fig. 25) are two Scythians in combat. Under
this again is a man leading a horse with a human skin thrown over it,
and to the right of the latter is placed the ostrich. X.—Asia Minor
with the Black Sea (Fig. 24). Many cities are shown prominent, among
which is Troy (Fig. 21), described as "<i>Troja civitas
bellicosissima</i>." Near the bottom to the left is Constantinople. The
lynx is shown near the center. XI.—Is nearly filled by the Holy Land.
In the center is Jerusalem (Fig. 23), the supposed center of the
world, surrounded by a high wall, and above is the Crucifixion. Below
Jerusalem to the right is Bethlehem with the manger. Near a circular
place to the right, called <i>"Puteus Juramenti"</i> (well of the oath), is
an unknown bird, called on the Map Avis Cirenus. XII.—Egypt with the
Nile. At the upper part (Fig. 9) are Joseph's granaries, i.e., the
Pyramids, immediately below which is the Salamander, and to the right
of that the Mandrake. Fig. 10 denotes the Delta with its cities.
On the other side of the Nile, and partly in sq. XIII., is the
Rhinoceros, and below it the Unicorn. XIII.—Ethiopia. In the upper
left-hand corner is the Sphinx, and near the bottom the Temple of
Jupiter Ammon, represented by a singular horse-shoe shaped figure. The
camp of Alexander the Great is in the bottom left-hand corner,
immediately above which is the boundary line between Asia and Africa,
XIV.—At the top of the left is Norway, in which the author has placed
the Monkey. The middle is filled by Russia. The small circular islands
on the left are the Orkneys, immediately below which is an inscription
relating to the Seven Sleepers, Scotland and part of England are shown
in the lower part, but the British Isles will be described in sq. XIX.
The singular triangular figure in the center of this square cannot be
identified. XV.—Germany, with part of Greece, in the upper part to
the right. The Danube and its tributaries are seen in the upper part,
in the lower is the Rhine. On the bank of the latter the scorpion is
placed; Venice is shown on the right, XVI.—Contains Italy and a great
part of the Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 14). About the center (Fig. 17) is
Rome, which bears the inscription, "Roma caput mundi tenet orbis frena
rotundi." In the upper part of the Mediterranean Sea is seen a
Mermaid, below (Fig. 11) is the Island of Crete, with its famous
labyrinth, to the left of which is the rock Scylla. Below Crete is
Sicily (Fig. 15), on which Mount Etna is shown; close to Sicily is the
whirlpool Charybdis, XVII.—Part of Africa; in the lower part to the
left, on a promontory, is seen Carthage; on the right the Leopard is
shown. XVIII.—Also part of Africa. The upper part is Fezzan, below is
shown the basilisk, and still lower some Troglodytes or dwellers in
caves. XIX.—On the left hand are the British Isles (Figs. 19, 20,
22), on the right France. Great Britain (Figs. 19, 22) is very fully
laid down, but of Ireland the author seemed to know but little. In
England twenty-six cities and towns are delineated, among which
Hereford (H'ford) is conspicuous. Twenty rivers are also seen, but the
only mountains shown are the Clee Hills. In Wales, Snowdon is seen,
and the towns of Carnarvon, Conway and St. David's. In Ireland four
towns, Armagh, Bangor, Dublin and Kildare, with two rivers, the Banne,
which, as shown, divides the island in two, and the Shannon. In
Scotland there are six towns. In France the City of Paris (Fig. 18) is
conspicuous. XX.—The upper part is Provence, the lower Spain. In the
Mediterranean Sea are laid down, among others, the Islands of Corsica,
Sardinia, Majorca, and Minorca. At the bottom are (Fig. 16) the
pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar), which were considered the extreme
western limits of the world. XXI.—At the top to the left (Fig. 13) is
St. Augustine of Hippo, in his pontifical habit. And at the opposite
corner the Lion, below which are the Agriophagi, a one-eyed people who
live on the flesh of lions and other beasts. The kingdoms on the shore
of the Mediterranean are Algiers, Setif, and Tangier.</p>
<h1>APPENDIX III.</h1>
<h2>CRITICISMS, COMMENTS, DOCUMENTS.</h2>
<h2>HUMAN PROGRESS.</h2>
<p>For most people the impossible would apparently be accomplished if a
century so far back as the Thirteenth were to be even seriously
thought of as the greatest of centuries. Evolution has come to be
accepted so unquestioningly, that of course "we are the heirs of all
the ages of the foremost files of time," and must be far ahead of our
forbears, especially of the distant past, in everything. When a man
talks glibly about great progress in recent times, he usually knows
only the history of his own time and not very much about that. Men who
have studied other periods seriously hesitate about the claim of
progress, and the more anyone knows about any other period, the less
does he think of his own as surpassing. There are many
exemplifications of this in recent literature. Because this was a
cardinal point in many criticisms of the book, it has seemed well to
illustrate the position here taken as to the absence of progress in
humanity by quotations from recognized authorities. Just as the first
edition of this book came from the press, Ambassador Bryce delivered
his address at Harvard on "What is Progress?" It appeared in the
<i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for August, 1907. Mr. Bryce is evidently not at all
persuaded that there is human progress in any real sense of the word.
Some striking quotations may be made from the address, but to get the
full impression of Mr. Bryce's reasons for hesitation about accepting
any progress, the whole article needs to be read. For instance, he
said:</p>
<p class="cite">
"It does not seem possible, if we go back to the earliest literature
which survives to us from Western Asia and Southeastern Europe, to
say that the creative powers of the human mind in such subjects as
poetry, philosophy, and historical narrative or portraiture, have
either improved or deteriorated. The poetry of the early Hebrews and
of the early Greeks has never been surpassed and hardly ever
equaled. Neither has the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, nor the
speeches of Demosthenes and Cicero. Geniuses like Dante, Chaucer,
and Shakespeare appear without our being able to account for them,
and for aught we know another may appear at any moment. It is just
as difficult, if we look back five centuries, to assert either
progress or decline in painting. Sculpture has never again risen to
so high a level as it touched in the fifth century, B. C, nor within
the last three centuries, to so high a level as it reached at the
end of the fifteenth. But we can found no generalizations upon that
fact. Music is the most inscrutable of the arts, and whether there
is any progress to be expected other than that which may come
from a further improvement in instruments constituting an orchestra,
I will not attempt to conjecture, any more than I should dare to
raise controversy by inquiring whether Beethoven represents progress
from Mozart, Wagner progress from Beethoven."</p>
<p>Perhaps the most startling evidence on this subject of the absence of
evolution in humanity is the opinion of Prof. Flinders Petrie, the
distinguished English authority on Egyptology, who has added nearly a
millennium to the history of Egypt. His studies have brought him in
intimate contact with Egypt from 2,000 to 5,000 B. C. He has found no
reason at all for thinking that our generation is farther advanced in
any important qualities than men were during this period. In an
article on "The Romance of Early Civilization" (<i>The Independent</i>,
Jan. 7, 1909), he said:</p>
<p class="cite">
"We have now before us a view of the powers of man at the earliest
point to which we can trace written history, and what strikes us
most is how very little his nature or abilities have changed in
seven thousand years; <i>what he admired we admire; what were his
limits in fine handiwork also are ours</i>. We may have a wider
outlook, a greater understanding of things; our interests may have
extended in this interval; but so far as human nature and tastes go,
man is essentially unchanged in this interval." … "This is the
practical outcome of extending our view of man three times as far
back as we used to look, and it must teach us how little material
civilization is likely in the future to change the nature, the
weaknesses, or the abilities of our ancestors in ages yet to come."</p>
<p>Those who think that man has advanced in practical wisdom during the
6,000 years of history, forget entirely the lessons of literature.
Whenever a great genius has written, he has displayed a knowledge of
human nature as great as any to be found at any other time in the
world's history. The wisdom of Homer and of Solomon are typical
examples. Probably the most striking evidence in this matter is to be
found in what is considered to be the oldest book ever written. This
is the Instructions of Ptah Hotep to his son. Ptah Hotep was the
vizier of King Itosi, of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt (about 3650 B.C.).
There is nothing that a father of the modern time would wish to tell
his boy as the result of his own experience that is not to be found in
this wise advice of a father, nearly 6,000 years ago. This was written
longer before Solomon than Solomon is before us, yet no practical
knowledge to be gained from intercourse with men has been added to
what this careful father of the long ago has written out for his son.</p>
<br/>
<h2>THE CENTURY OF ORIGINS.</h2>
<p>To many readers apparently, it has seemed that the main reason for
writing of The Thirteenth as the Greatest of Centuries was the fact
that the Church occupied so large a place in the life of that time,
and that, therefore, most of what was accomplished must naturally
revert to her account. It is not only those who are interested
in the old Church, however, who have written enthusiastically about
the Thirteenth Century. Since writing this volume, I have found that
Mr. Frederick Harrison is almost, if not quite, as ardent in his
praise of it as I have been. There are many others, especially among
the historians of art and of architecture, who apparently have not
been able to say all that they would wish in admiration of this
supreme century. Most of these have not been Catholics; and if we
place beside Mr. Frederick Harrison, the great Positivist of our
generation, Mr. John Morley, the great Rationalist, the chorus of
agreement on the subject of the greatness of the Thirteenth Century
ought to be considered about complete. Mr. Morley, in his address on
Popular Culture, delivered as President of the Midland Institute,
England, October, 1876 (Great Essays. Putnam, New York), said:</p>
<p class="cite">
"It is the present that really interests us; it is the present that
we seek to understand and to explain. I do not in the least want to
know what happened in the past, except as it enables me to see my
way more clearly through what is happening to-day. I want to know
what men thought and did in the Thirteenth Century, not out of any
dilettante or idle antiquarian's curiosity, but because the
Thirteenth Century is at the root of what men think and do in the
nineteenth."</p>
<br/>
<SPAN name="466Hux"></SPAN>
<h2> EDUCATION.</h2>
<p>Many even of the most benevolent readers of the book have been quite
sure that it exaggerated the significance of medieval education and,
above all, claimed too much for the breadth of culture given by the
early universities. Prof. Huxley is perhaps the last man of recent
times who would be suspected for a moment of exaggerating the import
of medieval education. In his Inaugural Address on Universities Actual
and Ideal, delivered as Rector of Aberdeen University, after
discussing the subject very thoroughly, he said:</p>
<p class="cite">
"The scholars of the Medieval Universities seem to have studied
grammar, logic and rhetoric; arithmetic and geometry; astronomy,
theology and music. Thus their work, however imperfect and faulty,
judged by modern lights, it may have been, brought them face to face
with all the leading aspects of the many-sided mind of man. For
these studies did really contain, at any rate in embryo, sometimes
it may be in caricature, what we now call philosophy, mathematical
and physical science, and art. <i>And I doubt if the curriculum of any
modern university shows so clear and generous a comprehension of
what is meant by culture, as this old Trivium and Quadrivium does</i>."
(Italics ours.)</p>
<p>The results of this system of education may be judged best perhaps
from Dante as an example. In The Popes and Science (Fordham University
Press, N. Y., 1908) a chapter is devoted to Dante as the typical
university man of the time, above all in his knowledge of science as
displayed in his great poem. No poet of the modern time has
turned with so much confidence to every phase of science for his
figures as this product of medieval universities. Anyone who thinks
that the study of science is recent, or that nature study was delayed
till our day, need only read Dante to be completely undeceived.</p>
<p>The fact that the scholars and the professors at the universities were
almost without exception believers in the possibility of the
transmutation of metals in the old days, used to be considered by many
educated people as quite sufficient to stamp them as lacking in
judgment and as prone to believe all sorts of incredible and even
impossible things without justification. Such supercilious
condemnation of the point of view of the medieval scholars in this
matter, however, has recently received a very serious jolt. Sometime
ago, Sir William Ramsey, the greatest of living English chemists,
announced at the meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, that he had succeeded in changing copper into
lithium. This created a sensation at the time, but represented, after
all, a culmination of effort in this direction that had long been
expected. More recently, Sir William has reported to the British
Chemical Society that he has succeeded in obtaining carbon from four
substances not containing this element—bismuth, hydro-fluo-silicic
acid, thorium and zirconium. An American professor of chemistry has
declared that he would like to remove all traces of silver from a
quantity of lead ore, and then, after allowing it to stand for some
years, have the opportunity to re-examine it, since he is confident
that he would find further traces of silver in it that had developed
in the meantime. He is sure that the reason why these two metals
always occur together, as do copper and, gold, is that they are
products of a developmental process, the precious metals being a step
farther on in that process than the so-called base metals. It would
seem, then, that the medieval scholars were not so silly as they used
to appear before we knew enough about the subject to judge them
properly. Only their supercilious critics were silly.</p>
<p>It is probably with regard to the exact sciences that most even
educated people are quite sure that the Thirteenth Century does not
deserve to be thought of as representing great human advance. For them
the Middle Ages were drowsily speculative, but never exact in
thinking. Of course, such people know nothing of the intense exactness
of thought of St. Thomas or Albertus Magnus or Duns Scotus. It would
be impossible, moreover, to make them realize, from the writings of
these men, how exact human thought actually was in the Thirteenth
Century, though the more that modern students devote themselves to
scholastic philosophy, the more surely do they appreciate and admire
this very quality in the medieval philosophy. For such people, very
probably, the only evidence that would have made quite an adequate
answer to their objection, would be a chapter on the mathematics of
the Thirteenth Century. That might very easily have been made,
for Cantor, in his History of Mathematics (Vorlesungen Über Geschichte
der Mathematik, Leipzig, 1892), devotes nearly 100 pages of his second
volume to the mathematicians of the Thirteenth Century, two of whom,
Leonardo of Pisa and Jordanus Nemorarius, did so much in Arithmetic,
the Theory of Numbers, Algebra and Geometry, as to make a revolution
in mathematics. Cantor says that they accomplished so much, that their
contemporaries and successors could scarcely follow them, much less go
beyond them. They had great disciples, like John of Sacrobusco
(probably John of Holywood, near Dublin), Joannes Campanus and others.
Cantor calls attention particularly to the spread of arithmetical
knowledge among the masses, which is a well-deserved tribute to the
century, for it was a characteristic of the time that the new thoughts
and discoveries of scholars were soon made practical and penetrated
very widely among the people. Brewer, in the Preface to Roger Bacon's
works, quotes some of Bacon's expressions with regard to the value of
mathematics. The English Franciscan said: "For without mathematics,
nothing worth knowing in philosophy can be attained." And again: "For
he who knows not mathematics cannot know any other science; what is
more, he cannot discover his own ignorance or find its proper remedy."
The term mathematics, as used by Bacon, had a much wider application
then than now, and Brewer notes that the Thirteenth Century scientist
included therein Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music.</p>
<p>With regard to post-graduate education; the best evidence that, far
from any exaggeration of what was accomplished in the Thirteenth
Century, there has been a very conservative estimate of it made in the
book, may be gathered from the legally erected standards of the
medical schools and the legal status of the medical profession. In the
Appendix of The Popes and Science, two Bulls are published, issued by
Pope John XXII. (<i>Circa</i>, 1320), establishing medical schools in
Perugia, at that time in the Papal States, and in Cahors, the
birthplace of this pope. These bulls were really the formal charters
of the medical schools. They require three years of preliminary study
at the university and four or five years at medicine before the degree
of doctor may be granted, and in addition emphasized that the
curricula of the new medical schools must be equal to those of Paris
and Bologna. These bulls were issued in the early part of the
fourteenth century, and show the height to which the standards of
medical education had been raised. There will be found also a law of
Frederick II., issued 1241, requiring for all physicians who wished to
practice in the Two Sicilies three years of preliminary study—four
years at the medical school and a year of practice with a physician
before the diploma which constituted a license to practice would be
issued. This law is also a pure drug law forbidding the sale of impure
drugs under penalty of confiscation of goods, and the preparation of
them under penalty of death. Our pure drug law was passed about the
time of the issue of the first edition of this book.</p>
<p>Those who ask for the results of this post-graduate training may find
them in the story of Guy de Chauliac, the Father of Modern Surgery.
His life formed the basis of a lecture before the Johns Hopkins
Medical Club that is to be published in the Bulletin of John Hopkins
Hospital. It is incorporated in Catholic Churchmen in Science, Second
Series (The Dolphin Press, Phila., 1909). We know Chauliac's work not
by tradition, but from his great text-book on surgery. This great
Papal physician of the fourteenth century operated within the skull,
did not hesitate to open the thorax, sewed up wounds of the
intestines, and discussed such subjects as hernia, catheterization,
the treatment of fractures, and manipulative surgery generally with
wonderful technical ability. His book was the most used text-book for
the next two centuries, and has won the admiration of everyone who has
ever read it.</p>
<br/>
<h2>TECHNICAL EDUCATION OF THE MASSES.</h2>
<p>Some of my friends courteously but firmly have insisted with me that I
have greatly exaggerated the technical abilities of the village
workmen of the Middle Ages. That every town of less than ten thousand
inhabitants in England was able to supply such workmen as we can
scarcely obtain in our cities of a million inhabitants, and in that
scanty population supply them in greater numbers than we can now
secure them from our teeming populations, seems to many simply
impossible.</p>
<p>What I have been trying to say, however, in the chapters on the Arts
and Crafts and on Popular Education, has been much better said by an
authority that will scarcely be questioned by my critics. The Rev.
Augustus Jessopp, D. D., who has been for twenty years the Rector of
Searning in England, who is an Honorary Fellow of St. John's College
and of Worcester College, Oxford, besides being an Honorary Canon in
the Cathedral of Norwich, has devoted much time and study to this
question of how the cathedrals were built and finished. Twenty years
of his life have been spent in the study of the old English parish and
of parish life. He has studied the old parish registers, and talks,
therefore, not from distant impressions, but from the actual facts as
they are recorded. If to his position as an antiquarian authority I
add the fact that he is not a member of the Roman Catholic Church, to
the credit of which so much of this popular education and
accomplishment in the arts and crafts of the century accrues, the
value of his evidence is placed entirely above suspicion of partisan
partiality. In his chapter on Parish Life in England, in his book
"Before the Great Pillage" (Before the Great Pillage with other
Miscellanies, by Augustus Jessopp, D. D., London. T. Fisher Unwin,
Paternoster Square, 1901), he says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"The evidence is abundant and positive, and is increasing upon us
year by year, that the work done upon the fabrics of our churches,
and the other work done in the beautifying of the interior of our
churches, such as the woodcarving of our screens, the painting of
the lovely figures in the panels of those screens, the
embroidery of the banners and vestments, the frescoes on the walls,
the engraving of the monumental brasses, the stained glass in the
windows, and all that vast aggregate of artistic achievements which
existed in immense profusion in our village churches till the
sixteenth century stripped them bare—all this was executed by local
craftsmen. The evidence for this is accumulating upon us every year,
as one antiquary after another succeeds in unearthing fragments of
pre-Reformation church-wardens' accounts.
<br/><br/>
"We have actual contracts for church building and church repairing
undertaken by village contractors. We have the cost of a rood screen
paid to a village carpenter, of painting executed by local artists.
We find the name of an artificer, described as aurifaber, or worker
in gold and silver, living in a parish which could never have had
five hundred inhabitants; we find the people in another place
casting a new bell and making the mould for it themselves; we find
the blacksmith of another place forging the iron work for the church
door, or we get a payment entered for the carving of the bench ends
in a little church five hundred years ago, which bench ends are to
be seen in that church at the present moment. And we get fairly
bewildered by the astonishing wealth of skill and artistic taste and
aesthetic feeling which there must have been in this England of
ours, in times which till lately we had assumed to be barbaric
times. Bewildered, I say, because we cannot understand how it all
came to a dead-stop in a single generation, not knowing that the
frightful spoliation of our churches and other parish buildings, and
the outrageous plunder of the parish gilds in the reign of Edward
the Sixth by the horrible band of robbers that carried on their
detestable work, effected such a hideous obliteration, such a clean
sweep of the precious treasures that were dispersed in rich
profusion over the whole land, that a dull despair of ever replacing
what had been ruthlessly pillaged crushed the spirit of the whole
nation, and art died out in rural England, and King Whitewash and
Queen Ugliness ruled supreme for centuries."</p>
<p>My argument is that a century which produced such artist-artisans
everywhere, had technical schools in great profusion, though they may
not have been called by any such ambitious name.</p>
<br/>
<h2>HOW IT ALL STOPPED.</h2>
<p>To most people it seems impossible to understand how it is that, if
artistic evolution proceeded to the perfection which it now seems
clear that it actually attained in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, we are only just getting back to a proper state of public
taste and a right degree of artistic skill in many of these same
accomplishments at the present time. That thought has come to many
others who, knowing and appreciating medieval progress in art and
literature, have tried to work out the reasons for the gap that exists
between medieval art and modern artistic endeavor. Some of these
explanations, because they serve to make clear why art evolution
stopped so abruptly and we are retracing our steps and taking models
from the past rather than doing original work that is an advance, must
be quoted here. Many people will find in them, I think, the reasons
for their misunderstanding of the old times.</p>
<p>Gerhardt Hauptmann, who is very well known, even among
English-speaking people, as one of the great living German dramatists,
and whose "Sunken Bell" attracted considerable attention in both its
German and English versions here in New York, in a recent criticism of
a new German book, declared that the reason for the gap between modern
and medieval art was the movement now coming to be known as the
religious revolt in Germany in the sixteenth century. He said:</p>
<p class="cite">
"I, as a Protestant, have often had to regret that we purchased our
freedom of conscience, our individual liberty, at entirely too high
a price. In order to make room for a small, mean little plant of
personal life, we destroyed a whole garden of fancy and hewed down a
virgin forest of aesthetic ideas. We went even so far in the
insanity of our weakness as to throw out of the garden of our souls
the fruitful soil that had been accumulating for thousands of years,
or else we plowed it under sterile clay.
<br/><br/>
"We have to-day, then, an intellectual culture that is well
protected by a hedge of our personality, but within this hedge we
have only delicate dwarf trees and unworthy plants, the poorer
progeny of great predecessors. We have telegraph lines, bridges and
railroads, but there grow no churches and cathedrals, only sentry
boxes and barracks. We need gardeners who will cause the present
sterilizing process of the soil to stop, and will enrich the surface
by working up into it the rich layers beneath. In my work-room there
is ever before me the photograph of Sebaldus' Tomb (model
Metropolitan Museum, New York). This rich German symbol rose from
the invisible in the most luxuriant developmental period of German
art. As a formal product of that art, it is very difficult to
appreciate it as it deserves. It seems to me as one of the most
wonderful bits of work in the whole field of artistic
accomplishment. The soul of all the great medieval period encircles
this silver coffin, wrapping it up into a noble unity, and enthrones
on the very summit of death. Life as a growing child. Such a work
could only have come to its perfection in the protected spaces of
the old Mother Church."</p>
<p>Rev. Dr. Jessopp, in his book, already cited, "The Great Pillage,"
does not hesitate to state in unmistakable terms the reason why all
the beauty and happiness went out of English country life some two
centuries after the Thirteenth Century, and how it came about that the
modern generations have had to begin over again from the beginning,
and not where our Catholic forefathers of the medieval period left us,
in what used to be the despised Middle Ages. He says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"When I talk of the great pillage, I mean that horrible and
outrageous looting of our churches other than conventual, and the
robbing of the people of this country of property in land and
movables, which property had actually been inherited by them as
members of those organized religious communities known as parishes.
It is necessary to emphasize the fact that in the general scramble
of the Terror under Henry the Eighth, and of the Anarchy in the days
of Edward the Sixth, there was only one class that was permitted to
retain any large portion of its endowments. The monasteries were
plundered even to their very pots and pans. Almshouses in which old
men and women were fed and clothed were robbed to the last pound,
the poor alms-folk being turned out into the cold at an hour's
warning to beg their bread. Hospitals for the sick and needy,
sometimes magnificently provided with nurses and chaplains, whose
very raison d'etre was that they were to look after and care for
those who were past caring for themselves—these were stripped of
all their belongings, the inmates sent out to hobble into some
convenient dry ditch to lie down and die in, or to crawl into some
barn or hovel, there to be tended, not without fear of consequences,
by some kindly man or woman who could not bear to see a suffering
fellow creature drop down and die at their own doorposts.
<br/><br/>
"We talk with a great deal of indignation of the Tweed ring. The day
will come when someone will write the story of two other rings—the
ring of the miscreants who robbed the monasteries in the reign of
Henry the Eighth was the first; but the ring of the robbers who
robbed the poor and helpless in the reign of Edward the Sixth was
ten times worse than the first.
<br/><br/>
"The Universities only just escaped the general confiscation; the
friendly societies and benefit clubs and the gilds did not escape.
The accumulated wealth of centuries, their houses and lands, their
money, their vessels of silver and their vessels of gold, their
ancient cups and goblets and salvers, even to their very chairs and
tables, were all set down in inventories and catalogues, and all
swept into the great robbers' hoard. Last, but not least, the
immense treasures in the churches, the joy and boast of every man
and woman and child in England, who day by day and week by week
assembled to worship in the old houses of God which they and their
fathers had built, and whose every vestment and chalice and
candlestick and banner, organs and bells, and picture and image and
altar and shrine they looked upon as their own and part of their
birthright—all these were torn away by the rudest spoilers, carted
off, they knew not whither, with jeers and scoffs and ribald
shoutings, while none dared raise a hand or let his voice be heard
above the whisper of a prayer of bitter grief and agony.
<br/><br/>
"One class was spared. The clergy of this Church of England of ours
managed to retain some of their endowments; but if the boy king had
lived another three years, there is good reason for believing that
these too would have gone."</p>
<p>Graft prevailed, and the old order disappeared in a slough of
selfishness.</p>
<br/>
<h2>COMFORT AND POVERTY.</h2>
<p>A number of friendly critics have insisted that <i>of course</i> the
Thirteenth Century was far behind later times in the comfort of the
people. Poverty is supposed to have been almost universal. Doubtless
many of the people were then very poor. Personally, I doubt if there
was as much poverty, that is, misery due to actual want of necessaries
of life, as there is at the present time. Certainly it was not
emphasized by having close to it, constantly rendering the pains of
poverty poignant by contrast, the luxury of the modern time. They had
not the large city, and people in the country do not suffer as much as
people in the city. In recent years, investigations of poverty in
England have been appalling in the statistics that they have
presented. Mr. Robert Hunter, in his book Poverty, has furnished us
with some details that make one feel that our generation should be the
last to say that the Thirteenth Century was behind in progress,
because so many of the people were so poor. Ruskin once said that the
ideal of the great nation is one wherein there must be "as many as
possible full-breathed, bright-eyed and happy-hearted human
creatures." I am sure that, tried by this standard, the Thirteenth
Century in Merrie England is ahead of any other generation and, above
all, far in advance of our recent generations.</p>
<p>By contrast to what we know of the merrie English men and women of the
Thirteenth Century, I would quote Mr. Hunter's paragraphs on the
Poverty of the Modern English People. He says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"A few years ago, England did not know the extent of her own
poverty. Economists and writers gave opinions of all kinds. Some
said conditions were 'bad,' others said such statements were
misleading; and here they were, tilting at each other, backward and
forward, in the most ponderous and serious way, until Mr. Booth, a
business man, undertook to get at the facts. <i>No one, even the most
radical economist, would have dared to have estimated the poverty of
London as extending to 30 per cent of the people</i> (as it proved).
The extent of poverty—the number of underfed, underclothed in
insanitary houses—was greater than could reasonably have been
estimated."</p>
<p>Some of the details of this investigation by Mr. Booth were so
startling that some explanation had to be found. They could not deny,
in the face of Mr. Booth's facts, but they set up the claim that the
conditions in London were exceptional. Then Mr. Rountree made an
investigation in York with precisely the same results. More than one
in four of the population was in poverty. To quote Mr. Hunter once
more:</p>
<p class="cite">
"As has been said, it was not until Mr. Charles Booth published, in
1891, the results of his exhaustive inquiries that the actual
conditions of poverty in London became known. About 1,000,000
people, or about thirty per cent of the entire population of London,
were found to be unable to obtain the necessaries for a sound
livelihood. They were in a state of poverty, living in conditions,
if not of actual misery, at any rate bordering upon it. In many
districts, considerably more than half of the population were either
in distress or on the verge of distress. When these results were
made public, the more conservative economists gave it as their
opinion that the conditions in London were, of course, exceptional,
and that it would be unsafe to make any generalizations for the
whole of England on the basis of Mr. Booth's figures for London.
About ten years later, Mr. B. S. Rountree, incited by the work of
Mr. Booth, undertook a similar inquiry in his native town, York, a
small provincial city, in most ways typical of the smaller towns of
England. In a large volume in which the results are published, it is
shown that the poverty in York was only slightly less extensive than
that of London. In the summary, Mr. Rountree compares the conditions
of London with those of York. His comments are as follows: 'The
proportions arrived at for the total populations living in poverty
in London and York respectively were as under:</p>
<p class="cite">
London—30.7 per cent<br/>
York—27.84 per cent</p>
<p>The proportion of the population living in poverty in York may be
regarded as practically the same as in London, especially when we
remember that Mr. Booth's information was gathered in 1887-1892, a
period of only average trade prosperity, whilst the York figures were
collected in 1899, when trade was unusually prosperous.'"</p>
<p>He continues: "We have been accustomed to look upon the poverty in
London as exceptional, but when the result of careful investigation
shows that the proportion of poverty in London is practically equalled
in what may be regarded as a typical provincial town, we are faced by
the startling probability that from 25 to 30 per cent of the town
populations of the United Kingdom are living in poverty."</p>
<p>Most of us will be inclined to think that Mr. Rountree must
exaggerate, and what he calls poverty most of us would doubtless be
inclined to think a modest competency a little below respectability.
He fixed the standard of twenty-one shillings eight pence ($5.25) a
week as a necessary one for a family of ordinary size. He says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"A family living upon the scale allowed for in this estimate, must
never spend a penny on railway fare or omnibus. They must never go
into the country unless they walk. They must never purchase a
half-penny newspaper or spend a penny to buy a ticket for a popular
concert. They must write no letters to absent children, for they
cannot afford to pay the postage. They must never contribute
anything to their church or chapel, nor give any help to a neighbor
which costs them money. They cannot save, nor can they join sick
club or trade union, because they cannot pay the necessary
subscription. The children must have no pocket money for dolls,
marbles or sweets. The father must smoke no tobacco nor drink no
beer. The mother must never buy any pretty clothes for herself or
for her children, the character for the family wardrobe, as for the
family diet, being governed by the regulation, 'Nothing must be
bought but that which is absolutely necessary for the maintenance of
physical health, and that which is bought must be of the plainest
and most economical description.' Should a child fall ill, it must
be attended by the family parish doctor; should it die, it must be
buried by the parish. Finally, the wage-earner must never be absent
from his work for a single day."
<br/><br/>
<i>More than one in four of the population living below this scale!</i></p>
<p>Conditions are, if anything, worse on the Continent. In Germany,
industry is at the best. Conditions in Berlin have been recently
reported in the Daily Consular Reports by a U. S. Government official.
Of the somewhat more than two millions of people who live in Berlin,
1,125,000 have an income. Nearly one-half of the incomes, however, are
exempt from taxation because they do not amount to the minimum taxable
income, though that is only $214—$4 per week. Of the 600,000 who have
taxable incomes, nearly 550,000 have less than $700 a year; that is,
get about $2 a day or less. Less than sixty thousand out of the total
population get more than $2 a day. It is easy to say, but hard to
understand, that this is a living wage, because things are cheaper in
Germany. Meat is, however, nearly twice as dear; sugar is twice as
dear; bread is dearer than it is in this country; coffee is dearer;
and only rent is somewhat cheaper.</p>
<p>It is easy to talk about the spread of comfort among the people of our
generation and the raising of the standard of living, but if one
compares these wages with the price of things as they are now, it is
hard to understand on just what basis of fact the claim for betterment
in our time, meaning more general comfort and happiness, is made.</p>
<p>People always refuse to believe that conditions are as bad as they
really are in these matters. Americans will at once have the feeling,
on reading Mr. Hunter and Mr. Rountree's words and the account of the
American Consul at Berlin, that this may be true for England and
Germany, but that of course it is very different here in America. It
is extremely doubtful whether it is very different here in America. In
this matter, Mr. Hunter's opinion deserves weight. He has for years
devoted himself to gathering information with regard to this subject.
He seems to be sure that one in seven of our population is in poverty.
Probably the number is higher than this. Here is his opinion:</p>
<p class="cite">
"How many people in the country are in poverty? Is the number yearly
growing larger? Are there each year more and more of the unskilled
classes pursuing hopelessly the elusive phantom of self-support and
independence? Are they, as in a dream, working faster, only the more
swiftly to move backward? Are there each year more and more hungry
children and more and more fathers whose utmost effort may not bring
into the home as much energy in food as it takes out in industry?
These are not fanciful questions, nor are they sentimental ones. I
have not the slightest doubt that there are in the United States ten
million persons in precisely these conditions of poverty, but I am
largely guessing, and there may be as many as fifteen or twenty
millions!"</p>
<p>Perhaps Mr. Hunter exaggerates. As a physician, I should be inclined
to think not; but certainly his words and, above all, the English
statistics will give any one pause who is sure, on general principles,
that the great mass of the people are happier now or more comfortable,
above all, in mind—the only real happiness—than they were in the
Thirteenth Century. After due consideration of this kind, no one will
insist on the comparative misery and suffering of the poor in old
times. England had less than 3,000,000 in the Thirteenth Century, and
probably there was never a time in her history when a greater majority
of her people fulfilled Ruskin's and Morris' ideals of happy-hearted
human beings. The two-handed worker got at least what the four-footed
worker, in Carlyle's words, has always obtained, due food and lodging.
England was not "a nation with sleek, well-fed English horses, and
hungry, dissatisfied Englishmen."</p>
<br/>
<h2>COMFORT AND HAPPINESS.</h2>
<p>There is another side to the question of comparative happiness that
may be stated in the words of William Morris, when he says, in "Hopes
and Fears for Art," that a Greek or a Roman of the luxurious time (and
of course <i>a fortiori</i> a medieval of the Thirteenth Century) would
stare astonished could he be brought back again and shown the
comforts of a well-to-do middle-class house. This expression is often
re-echoed, and one is prone to wonder how many of those who use it
realize that it is a quotation, and, above all, appreciate the fact
that Morris made the statement in order to rebut it. His answer is in
certain ways so complete that it deserves to be quoted.</p>
<p class="cite">
"When you hear of the luxuries of the Ancients, you must remember
that they were not like our luxuries, they were rather indulgence in
pieces of extravagant folly than what we to-day call luxury—which,
perhaps, you would rather call comfort; well, I accept the word, and
say that a Greek or a Roman of the luxurious time would stare
astonished could he be brought back again and shown the comforts of
a well-to-do middle-class house.
<br/><br/>
"But some, I know, think that the attainment of these very comforts
is what makes the difference between civilization and
uncivilization—that they are the essence of civilization. Is it so
indeed? Farewell my hope then! I had thought that civilization meant
the attainment of peace and order and freedom, of good-will between
man and man, of the love of truth and the hatred of injustice, and
by consequence the attainment of the good life which these things
breed, a life free from craven fear, but full of incident; that was
what I thought it meant, not more stuffed chairs and more cushions,
and more carpets and gas, and more dainty meat and drink—and
therewithal more and sharper differences between class and class.
<br/><br/>
"If that be what it is, I for my part wish I were well out of it and
living in a tent in the Persian desert, or a turf hut on the Iceland
hillside. But, however it be, and I think my view is the true view,
I tell you that art abhors that side of civilization; she cannot
breath in the houses that lie under its stuffy slavery.
<br/><br/>
"Believe me, if we want art to begin at home, as it must, we must
clear our houses of troublesome superfluities that are forever in
our way, conventional comforts that are no real comforts, and do but
make work for servants and doctors. If you want a golden rule that
will fit everybody, this is it: 'Have nothing in your houses that
you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful.'"</p>
<br/>
<h2>COMFORT AND HEALTH.</h2>
<p>A comment on William Morris's significant paragraphs may be summed up
in some reflections on the scornful expression of a friend who asked,
how is it possible to talk of happiness at a time when there were no
glass in windows and no heating apparatus except the open fireplace in
the great hall of the larger houses, or in the kitchen of the dwelling
houses. To this there is the ready answer that, in the modern time, we
have gone so far to the opposite extreme as to work serious harm to
health. When a city dweller develops tuberculosis, his physician now
sends him out to the mountains, asks him to sleep with his window wide
open, and requires him to spend just as much of his time as possible
in the open air, even with the temperature below zero. In our
hospitals, the fad for making patients comfortable by artificial heat
is passing, and that of stimulating them by cold, fresh air is gaining
ground. We know that, for all the fevers and all the respiratory
diseases this brings about a notable reduction in the mortality.
Surely, what is good for the ailing must be even better to keep them
well from disease. Many a physician now arranges to sleep out of doors
all winter. Certainly all the respiratory diseases are rendered much
more fatal and modern liability to them greatly increased by our
shut-up houses. The medieval people were less comfortable, from a
sensual standpoint, but the healthy glow and reaction after cold
probably made them enjoy life better than we do in our steam-heated
houses. They secured bodily warmth by an active circulation of their
blood. We secure it by the circulation of hot water or steam in our
houses. Ours may be the better way, but the question is not yet
absolutely decided. A physician friend points to the great reduction
in the death-rate in modern times, and insists that this, of course,
means definite progress. Even this is not quite so sure as is often
thought. We are saving a great many lives that heretofore, in the
course of nature, under conditions requiring a more vigorous life,
passed out of existence early. It is doubtful, however, whether this
is an advantage for the race, since our insane asylums, our hospitals
for incurables and our homes of various kinds now have inmates in much
greater proportion to the population than ever before in history.
These are mainly individuals of lower resistive vitality, who would
have been allowed to get out of existence early, save themselves and
their friends from useless suffering, and whose presence in life does
not add greatly if at all to the possibilities of human
accomplishment. Our reduced death-rate is, because of comfort seeking,
more than counterbalanced by a reduced birth-rate, so that no
advantage is reaped for the race in the end. These reflections, of
course, are only meant to suggest how important it is to view such
questions from all sides before being sure that they represent
definite progress for humanity. Progress is much more elusive than is
ordinarily thought, and is never the simple, unmistakable movement of
advance it is often thought.</p>
<br/>
<h2>HYGIENE.</h2>
<p>The objection that medical friends have had to the claims of The
Thirteenth as the Greatest of Centuries is that it failed to pay any
attention to hygiene. Here, once more, we have a presumption that is
not founded on real knowledge of the time. It is rather easy to show
that these generations were anticipating many of our solutions of
hygienic problems quite as well as our solutions of other social and
intellectual difficulties. In the sketch of Pope John XXI., the
physician who became Pope during the second half of the Thirteenth
Century, which was published in Ophthalmology, a quarterly review of
eye diseases (Jan., 1909), because Pope John wrote a little book on
this subject which has many valuable anticipations of modern
knowledge, I called attention to the fact that, while a physician and
professor of medicine at the medical school of the University of
Sienna, this Pope, then known as Peter of Spain, had made some
contributions to sanitary science. Later he was appointed Archiater,
that is, Physician in charge of the City of Rome. As pointed out in
the sketch of him as enlarged for the volume containing a second
series of Catholic Churchmen in Science (The Dolphin Press, Phila.,
1909), he seems to have been particularly interested in popular
health, for we have a little book, Thesaurus Pauperum—The Treasure of
the Poor—which contains many directions for the maintenance of health
and the treatment of disease by those who are too poor to secure
physicians' advice. The fact that the head of the Bureau of Health in
Rome should have been made Pope in the Thirteenth Century, itself
speaks volumes for the awakening of the educated classes at least to
the value of hygiene and sanitation.</p>
<p>Their attention to hygiene can be best shown by a consideration of the
hospitals. Ordinarily it is assumed that the hospitals provided a roof
for the sick and the injured, but scarcely more. Most physicians will
probably be quite sure that they were rather hot-beds of disease than
real blessings to the ailing. That is not what we find when we study
them carefully. These generations gave us a precious lesson by
eradicating leprosy, which was quite as general as tuberculosis is
now, and they made special hospitals for erysipelas, which materially
lessened the diffusion of that disease. In rewriting the chapter on
The Foundation of City Hospitals for my book, The Popes and Science
(Fordham University Press, N. Y., 1908), I incorporated into it a
description of the hospital erected at Tanierre, in France, in 1293,
by Marguerite of Bourgogne, the sister of St. Louis. Of this hospital
Mr. Arthur Dillon, from the standpoint of the modern architect, says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"It was an admirable hospital in every way, and it is doubtful if we
to-day surpass it. It was isolated, the ward was separated from the
other buildings; it had the advantage we often lose, of being but
one story high, and more space was given to each patient than we now
afford.
<br/><br/>
"The ventilation by the great windows and ventilators in the ceiling
was excellent; it was cheerfully lighted, and the arrangement of the
gallery shielded the patients from dazzling light and from draughts
from the windows, and afforded an easy means of supervision, while
the division by the roofless, low partitions isolated the sick and
obviated the depression that comes from the sight of others in pain.
<br/><br/>
"It was, moreover, in great contrast to the cheerless white wards of
to-day. The vaulted ceiling was very beautiful; the woodwork was
richly carved, and the great windows over the altars were filled
with colored glass. Altogether, it was one of the best examples of
the best period of Gothic architecture."</p>
<p>In their individual Hygiene there was, of course, much to be desired
among the people of the Thirteenth Century, and it has been declared
that the history of Europe from the fifth to the fifteenth century
might, from the hygienic standpoint, he summed up as a thousand years
without a bath. The more we know about this period, however, the less
of point do we find in the epigram. Mr. Cram, in the Ruined
Abbeys of Great Britain (Pott & Co., N. Y., 1907), has described
wonderful arrangements within the monasteries (!) for the conduction
of water from long distances for all toilet purposes. There was much
more attention to sanitary details than we have been prone to think.
Mr. Cram, in describing what was by no means one of the greatest of
the English abbeys of the Thirteenth Century, says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"Here at Beaulieu the water was brought by an underground conduit
from an unfailing spring a mile away, and this served for drinking,
washing and bathing, the supply of the fish ponds, and for a
constant flushing of the elaborate system of drainage. In sanitary
matters, the monks were as far in advance of the rest of society as
they were in learning and agriculture."</p>
<br/>
<h2>WAGES AND THE CONDITION OP WORKING PEOPLE.</h2>
<p>What every reader of the Thirteenth Century seems to be perfectly sure
of is that, whatever else there may have been in this precious time,
at least the workmen were not well paid and men worked practically for
nothing. It is confessed that, of course, working as they did on their
cathedrals, they had a right to work for very little if they wished,
but at least there has been a decided step upward in evolution in the
gradual raising of wages, until at last the workman is beginning to be
paid some adequate compensation. There is probably no phase of the
life of the Middle Ages with regard to which people are more mistaken
than this supposition that the workmen of this early time were paid
inadequately. I have already called attention to the fact that the
workmen of this period claimed and obtained "the three eights"—eight
hours of work, eight hours of sleep and eight hours for recreation and
bodily necessities. They obtained the Saturday half-holiday, and also
release from work on the vigils of all feast days, and there were
nearly forty of these in the year. After the vesper hour, that is,
three in Summer and two in Winter, there was no work on the Eves of
Holy-days of Obligation. With regard to wages, there is just one way
to get at the subject, and that is, to present the legal table of
wages enacted by Parliament, placing beside it the legal maximum price
of necessities of life, as also determined by Parliamentary enactment.</p>
<p>An Act of Edward III. fixes the wages, without food, as follows. There
are many other things mentioned, but the following will be enough for
our purpose:</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" width="100%">
<tbody>
<tr><td>Work</td><td>Shillings</td><td>Pence</td></tr>
<tr><td>A woman hay-making, or weeding corn for the day</td><td>0 </td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>A man filling dung-cart</td><td>0</td><td> 3-1/2</td></tr>
<tr><td>A reaper</td><td>0</td><td> 4</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mowing an acre of grass</td><td>0</td><td> 4</td></tr>
<tr><td>Threshing a quarter of wheat</td><td>0</td><td> 4</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>The price of shoes, cloth and provisions, throughout the time that
this law continued in force, was as follows:</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" width="100%">
<tbody>
<tr><td>Item </td><td colspan="3">Price</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>Pounds</td><td>Shillings</td><td>Pence</td></tr>
<tr><td>A pair of shoes</td><td>0</td><td> 0</td><td>4</td></tr>
<tr><td>Russet broadcloth, the yard</td><td>0 </td><td>1</td><td> 1</td></tr>
<tr><td>A stall fed ox</td><td>1 </td><td>4 </td><td> 0</td></tr>
<tr><td>A grass fed ox</td><td>0 </td><td>16 </td><td> 0</td></tr>
<tr><td>A fat sheep unshorn</td><td>0</td><td> 1</td><td> 8</td></tr>
<tr><td>A fat sheep shorn</td><td>0</td><td> 1</td><td> 2</td></tr>
<tr><td>A fat hog two years old</td><td>0 </td><td>3</td><td> 4</td></tr>
<tr><td>A fat goose</td><td>0 </td><td> 0 </td><td>2-1/2.</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ale, the gallon, by proclamation</td><td>0 </td><td> 0 </td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>Wheat, the quarter</td><td>0</td><td> 3 </td><td> 4</td></tr>
<tr><td>White wine, the gallon</td><td>0</td><td> 0</td><td> 6</td></tr>
<tr><td>Red wine</td><td>0</td><td> 0 </td><td> 4</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>An Act of Parliament of the fourteenth century, in fixing the price of
meat, names the four sorts of meat—beef, pork, mutton and veal, and
sets forth in its preamble the words, "these being the food of the
poorer sort." The poor in England do not eat these kinds of meat now,
and the investigators of the poverty of the country declare that most
of the poor live almost exclusively on bread. The fact of the matter
is, that large city populations are likely to harbor many very
miserable people, while the rural population of England in the Middle
Ages, containing the bulk of the people, were happy-hearted and merry.
When we recall this in connection with what I have given in the text
with regard to the trades-unions and their care for the people, the
foolish notion, founded on a mere assumption and due to that
Aristophanic joke, our complacent self-sufficiency, which makes us so
ready to believe that our generation <i>must</i> be better off than others
were, vanishes completely.</p>
<p>It is easy to understand that beef, pork, mutton, veal and even
poultry were the food of the poor, when a workman could earn the price
of a sheep in less than four days or buy nearly two fat geese for his
day's wages. A day laborer will work from forty to fifty days now to
earn the price of an ox on the hoof, and it was about the same at the
close of the Thirteenth Century. When a fat hog costs less than a
dollar, a man's wages, at eight cents a day, are not too low. When a
gallon of good ale can be obtained for two cents, no workman is likely
to go dry. When a gallon of red wine can be obtained for a day's
wages, it is hard to see any difference between a workman of the olden
time and the present in this regard. Two yards of cloth made a coat
for a gentleman and cost only a little over two shillings. The making
of it brought the price of it up to two shilling and six pence. These
prices are taken from the Preciosum of Bishop Fleetwood, who took them
from the accounts kept by the bursars of convents. Fleetwood's book is
accepted very generally as an excellent authority in the history of
economics.</p>
<p>Cobbett, in his History of the Protestant Reformation, has made an
exhaustive study of just this question of the material and economic
condition of the people of England before and since the reformation.
He says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"These things prove, beyond all dispute, that England was, in
Catholic times, a real wealthy country; that wealth was generally
diffused; that every part of the country abounded in men of solid
property; and that, of course, there were always great resources at
hand in cases of emergency." … "In short, everything shows that
England was then a country abounding in men of real wealth."</p>
<p>Fortesque, the Lord High Chancellor of England under Henry VI., king a
century after the Thirteenth, has this to say with regard to the legal
and economic conditions in England in his time. Some people may think
the picture he gives an exaggeration, but it was written by a great
lawyer with the definite idea of giving a picture of the times, and,
under ordinary circumstances, we would say that there could be no
better authority.</p>
<p class="cite">
"The King of England cannot alter the laws, or make new ones,
without the express consent of the whole kingdom in Parliament
assembled. Every inhabitant is at his liberty fully to use and enjoy
whatever his farm produceth, the fruits of the earth, the increase
of his flock and the like—all the improvements he makes, whether by
his own proper industry or of those he retains in his service, are
his own, to use and enjoy, without the let, interruption or denial
of any. If he be in any wise injured or oppressed, he shall have his
amends and satisfactions against the party offending. Hence it is
that the inhabitants are rich in gold, silver, and in all the
necessaries and conveniences of life. They drink no water unless at
certain times, upon a religious score, and by way of doing penance.
They are fed in great abundance, with all sorts of flesh and fish,
of which they have plenty everywhere; they are clothed throughout in
good woollens, their bedding and other furniture in the house are of
wool, and that in great store. They are also well provided with all
sorts of household goods and necessary implements for husbandry.
Every one, according to his rank, hath all things which conduce to
make mind and life easy and happy."</p>
<br/>
<h2>INTEREST AND LOANS.</h2>
<p>A number of commercial friends have been interested in the wonderful
story of business organizations traced in the chapter on Great
Beginnings of Modern Commerce. They have all been sure, however, that
it is quite idle to talk of great commercial possibilities at a time
when ecclesiastical regulations forbade the taking of interest. This
would seem to make it quite impossible that great commercial
transactions could be carried on, yet somehow these people succeeded
in accomplishing them. A number of writers on economics in recent
years have suggested that possibly one solution of the danger to
government and popular rights from the accumulation of large fortunes
might be avoided by a return to the system of prohibition of interest
taking. There is much more in that proposition than might
possibly be thought by those who are unfamiliar with it from serious
consideration. They did succeed in getting on without it in the
Thirteenth Century, and at the same time they solved the other problem
of providing loans, not alone for business people, but for all those
who might need them. We are solving the "loan shark" evil at the
present time in nearly the same way that they solved it seven
centuries ago. Abbot Gasquet, in his "Parish Life in England Before
the Reformation," describes the methods of the early days as follows:</p>
<p class="cite">
"The parish wardens had their duties towards the poorer members of
the district. In more than one instance they were guardians of the
common chest, out of which temporary loans could be obtained by
needy parishioners, to tide over persons in difficulties. These
loans were secured by pledges and the additional security of other
parishioners. No interest was charged for the use of the money, and
in case the pledge had to be sold, everything over and above the sum
lent was returned to the borrower."</p>
<br/>
<h2>THE EIGHTEENTH<br/> LOWEST OF CENTURIES.</h2>
<p>There is no doubt that the nineteenth century, and especially the
latter half of it, saw some very satisfactory progress over
immediately preceding times. With the recognition of this fact, that
the last century so far surpassed its predecessor there has been a
tendency to assume, because evolution occupies men's minds, that the
eighteenth must have quite as far surpassed the seventeenth, and the
seventeenth the sixteenth, and so on, so that of course we are far
ahead in everything of the despised Middle Ages. In recent years,
indeed, we have dropped the attitude of blaming the earlier ages, for
one of complacent pity that they were not born soon enough, and,
therefore, could not enjoy our advantages. Unfortunately for any such
conclusion as this, the term of comparison nearest to us, the
eighteenth century is without doubt the lowest hundred years in human
accomplishment, at least during the past seven centuries.</p>
<p>This is true for every form of human endeavor and every phase of human
existence. Prof. Goodyear, of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Science, the well-known author of a series of books on art and
history, in one of the chapters of his Handbook on Renaissance and
Modern Art (New York, The McMillan Co.), in describing the Greek
revival of the latter part of the eighteenth century says: "According
to our accounts so far throughout this whole book, either of
architecture, painting, or sculpture, it will appear that the earlier
nineteenth century represents the foot of a hill, whose gradual
descent began about 1530." As a matter of fact, in every department of
artistic expression the taste of the eighteenth century was almost the
worst possible. The monuments that we have from that time, in the
shape of churches and municipal buildings, are few, but such as they
are, they are the least worthy of imitation, and the art ideas
they represent are most to be deprecated of any in the whole history
of modern art.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most awful arraignment of the eighteenth and early
nineteenth century that was ever made is that of Mr. Cram, in the
Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain, from which I have already quoted. He
calls attention to the fact that, during this century, some of the
most beautiful sculptured work that ever came from the hand of man was
torn out of the ruins of St. Mary's Abbey, York, to serve no better
purpose than to make lime. His description of the sculpture of the
Abbey will give some idea of its beauty and render all the more
poignant the loss that was thus inflicted on art. He says:</p>
<p class="cite">
"Most wonderful of all amongst a horde of smaller statues, a
mutilated fragment of a statue of Our Lady and the Holy Child, so
consummate in its faultless art that it deserves a place with the
masterpieces of sculpture of every age and race. Here in this dim
and scanty undercraft is an epitome of the English art of four
centuries, precious and beautiful beyond the power of words to
describe.
<br/><br/>
"York Abbey was a national monument, the aesthetic and historic
value of which was beyond computation. It is with feelings of horror
and unutterable dismay that, as we stand beside the few existing
fragments, realizing the irreparable loss they make so clear, we
call into mind Henry's sacrilege in the sixteenth century, and his
silly palace doomed to instant destruction, and the crass ignorance
and stolidity of the eighteenth century with its grants of building
material, and the mercenary savagery of the nineteenth century when,
from smoking lime kilns rose into the air the vanishing ghosts of
the noblest creations that owed their existence to man.
<br/><br/>
"Nothing is sadder to realize than the failure of appreciation for
art of the early nineteenth and the eighteenth century. Men had
lost, apparently, all proper realization of the value of artistic
effort and achievement. It was an era of travel and commerce and,
unfortunately, of industrial development. As a consequence, in many
parts of Europe, and especially of England, art remains of
inestimable value suffered at the hands of utilitarians who found
them of use in their enterprises. We are accustomed to rail against
the barbarians and the Turks for their failure to appreciate the
remains of Latin and Greek art and for their wanton destruction of
them, but what shall we say of modern Englishmen, who quite as
ruthlessly destroyed objects of art of equal value at least with
Roman and Greek, while the great body of the nation made no
complaint, and no protest was heard anywhere in the kingdom."</p>
<p>What is so true of the arts is, as might be reasonably expected, quite
as true of other phases of intellectual development. Education, for
instance, is at the lowest ebb that it has reached since the
foundation of the Universities at the end of the twelfth century. In
Germany, there was only one university, that of Göttingen, in which
there was a professorship of Greek. When Winckelmann introduced the
study of Greek into his school at Seehausen, no school-books for this
language were available, and he was obliged to write out texts for his
students. What was the case in Germany was also true, to a great
degree, of the rest of Europe. Leading French critics ridiculed the
Greek authors. Homer was considered a ballad singer and compared to
the street singers of Paris. Voltaire thought that the AEneid of
Virgil was superior to all that the Greek writers had ever done. No
edition of Plato had been published in Europe since the end of the
sixteenth century. Other Greek authors were almost as much neglected,
and of true scholarship there was very little. When Cardinal Newman,
in his Idea of a University, wants to find the lowest possible term of
comparison for the intellectual life of the university, he takes the
English universities of the middle of the eighteenth century.</p>
<p>With this neglect of education, and above all of the influence that
Greek has always had in chastening and perfecting taste, it is not
surprising that literature was in every country of Europe at a very
low ebb. It was not so feeble as art, but the two are interdependent,
much more than is usually thought. Only France has anything to show in
literature that has had an enduring influence in the subsequent
centuries. When we compare the French literature of the eighteenth
with that of the seventeenth century, however, it is easy to see how
much of a descent there has been from Corneille, Racine, Moliêre,
Boileau, La Fontaine, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Fénelon to Voltaire,
Marivaux, Lesage, Diderot, and Bernardin de St. Pierre. This same
decadence of literature can be noted even more strikingly in England,
in Spain, and in Italy. The seventeenth, especially the first half of
it, saw the origin of some of the greatest works of modern literature.
The eighteenth century produced practically nothing that was to live
and be a vital force in aftertimes.</p>
<p>What is true in art, letters and education is, above all, true in what
men did for liberty and for their fellow-men. Hospital organization
and the care of the ailing was at its lowest ebb during the eighteenth
century. Jacobson, the German historian of the hospitals, says:
[Footnote 36]</p>
<p class="footnote">
[Footnote 36: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Krankencomforts.
Deutsche Krankenpflege Zeitung, 1898, in 4 parts.]</p>
<p class="cite">
"It is a remarkable fact that attention to the well-being of the
sick, improvements in hospitals and institutions generally and to
details of nursing care, had a period of complete and lasting
stagnation after the middle of the seventeenth century, or from the
close of the Thirty Years' War. Neither officials nor physicians
took any interest in the elevation of nursing or improving the
conditions of hospitals. During the first two-thirds of the
eighteenth century, nothing was done to bring either construction or
nursing to a better state. Solely among the religious orders did
nursing remain an interest, and some remnants of technique survive.
The result was that, in this period, the general level of nursing
fell far below that of earlier periods. The hospitals of cities were
like prisons, with bare, undecorated walls and little dark rooms,
small windows where no sun could enter, and dismal wards where fifty
or one hundred patients were crowded together, deprived of all
comforts and even of necessaries. In the municipal and state
institutions of this period, the beautiful gardens, roomy halls, and
springs of water of the old cloister hospital of the Middle
Ages were not heard of, still less the comforts of their friendly
interiors."</p>
<p>As might be expected, with the hospitals so badly organized, the art
of nursing was in a decay that is almost unutterable. Miss Nutting, of
Johns Hopkins Hospital, the Superintendent of Nurses, and Miss Dock,
the Secretary of the International Council of Nurses, have in their
History of Nursing a chapter on the Dark Period of Nursing, in which
the decadence of the eighteenth century, in what regards the training
of nurses for the intelligent care of the sick, is brought out very
clearly. They say: [Footnote 37]</p>
<p class="footnote">
[Footnote 37: A History of Nursing, by M. Adelaide Nutting and
Lavinia L. Dock, in two volumes, illustrated. G. P. Putnam's Sons,
New York, 1907.]</p>
<p class="cite">
"It is commonly agreed that the darkest known period in the history
of nursing was that from the latter part of the seventeenth up to
the middle of the nineteenth century. During the time, the condition
of the nursing art, the well-being of the patient, and the status of
the nurse, all sank to an indescribable level of degradation."</p>
<p>Taine, in his History of the Old Regimé of France, has told the awful
story of the attitude of the so-called better classes toward the poor.
While conditions were at their worst in France, every country in
Europe saw something of the same thing. In certain parts of Germany
conditions were, if possible, worse. It is no wonder that the French
Revolution came at the end of the eighteenth century, and that a
series of further revolutions during the nineteenth century were
required to win back some of the rights which men had gained for
themselves in earlier centuries and then lost, sinking into a state of
decadence out of which we are only emerging, though in most countries
we have not reached quite the level of human liberty and, above all,
of Christian democracy that our forefathers had secured seven
centuries ago.</p>
<p>With these considerations in mind, it is easier to understand how men
in the later nineteenth century and beginning twentieth century are
prone to think of their periods as representing an acme in the course
of progress. There is no doubt that we are far above the eighteenth
century. That, however, was a deep valley in human accomplishment,
indeed, a veritable slough of despond, out of which we climbed; and,
looking back, are prone to think how fortunate we are in having
ascended so high, though beyond our vision on the other side of the
valley the hills rise much higher into the clouds of human aspiration
and artistic excellence than anything that we have attained as yet.
Indeed, whenever we try to do serious work at the present time, we
confessedly go back from four to seven centuries for the models that
we must follow. With Renaissance art and Gothic architecture and the
literature before the end of the sixteenth century cut out of our
purview, we would have nothing to look to for models. This phase of
history needs to be recalled by all those who would approach with
equanimity the consideration of The Thirteenth as the Greatest of
Centuries.</p>
<h1>INDEX</h1>
<p>A.<br/>
<br/>
Abbey schools, <SPAN href="#26">26</SPAN>;<br/>
of St. Victor, <SPAN href="#150">150</SPAN><br/>
Aberration of light, <SPAN href="#44">44</SPAN><br/>
Abingdon, Edmund of, <SPAN href="#327">327</SPAN><br/>
Adam of St. Victor, <SPAN href="#204">204</SPAN><br/>
Age of Students, <SPAN href="#25">25-63</SPAN><br/>
Albertus Magnus, <SPAN href="#46">46</SPAN><br/>
Alchemies, <SPAN href="#93">93</SPAN><br/>
Alfonso the Wise, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN><br/>
Aliens' rights, <SPAN href="#358">358</SPAN><br/>
Allbutt, Prof., <SPAN href="#83">83</SPAN><br/>
Amiens, <SPAN href="#105">105</SPAN><br/>
Andrew II, Golden Bull, <SPAN href="#369">369</SPAN><br/>
Angel Choir, <SPAN href="#13">13</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#108">108</SPAN><br/>
Angelo on Dante, <SPAN href="#305">305</SPAN><br/>
Anselm, <SPAN href="#80">80</SPAN><br/>
Antipodes, <SPAN href="#50">50</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#392">392</SPAN><br/>
Ants in Dante, <SPAN href="#314">314</SPAN><br/>
Appreciation of art, <SPAN href="#146">146</SPAN><br/>
Aquinas, <SPAN href="#38">38</SPAN>;<br/>
and Albertus, <SPAN href="#271">271</SPAN>;<br/>
appreciation of, <SPAN href="#283">283</SPAN>;<br/>
capacity for work, <SPAN href="#286">286</SPAN>;<br/>
education, <SPAN href="#270">270</SPAN>;<br/>
on Existence of God, <SPAN href="#276">276</SPAN>;<br/>
on liberty and society, <SPAN href="#279">279</SPAN>;<br/>
at Paris, <SPAN href="#272">272</SPAN>;<br/>
as a poet, <SPAN href="#287">287</SPAN>;<br/>
and Pope Leo XIII, <SPAN href="#374">374</SPAN>;<br/>
on Resurrection, <SPAN href="#278">278</SPAN>;<br/>
tributes to, <SPAN href="#281">281</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
Arbitration, <SPAN href="#382">382</SPAN><br/>
Arena Padua, <SPAN href="#144">144</SPAN><br/>
Arezzo, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Arnaud, Daniel, <SPAN href="#189">189</SPAN><br/>
Arnaud de Marveil, <SPAN href="#189">189</SPAN><br/>
Arnold, Matthew, and Francis, <SPAN href="#256">256</SPAN><br/>
Art and the Friars, <SPAN href="#139">139</SPAN><br/>
Artemus Ward, <SPAN href="#52">52</SPAN><br/>
Arts and Crafts, <SPAN href="#124">124</SPAN><br/>
Arthur Legends, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#173">173</SPAN><br/>
Arundel, Countess of, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN><br/>
Asbestos, <SPAN href="#398">398</SPAN><br/>
Ascoli, Cope, <SPAN href="#14">14</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#134">134</SPAN><br/>
Assisi, <SPAN href="#144">144</SPAN><br/>
Assizes of Clarendon, <SPAN href="#351">351</SPAN>;<br/>
of Jerusalem, <SPAN href="#365">365</SPAN><br/>
Avignon, <SPAN href="#24">24</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
B.<br/>
<br/>
Bacon, <SPAN href="#41">41</SPAN><br/>
Barbarossa, <SPAN href="#1">1</SPAN><br/>
Barbizon School, <SPAN href="#145">145</SPAN><br/>
Basil Valentine, <SPAN href="#94">94</SPAN><br/>
Bateson, Miss, <SPAN href="#328">328</SPAN><br/>
Beau Dieu, <SPAN href="#13">13</SPAN><br/>
Beautiful God, <SPAN href="#105">105</SPAN><br/>
Beauty and usefulness, <SPAN href="#113">113</SPAN><br/>
Beauvoisis, Statutes of, <SPAN href="#365">365</SPAN><br/>
Bell-making, <SPAN href="#133">133</SPAN><br/>
Beowulf, <SPAN href="#180">180</SPAN><br/>
Berrengaria, Queen, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN><br/>
Bernardo del Carpio, <SPAN href="#170">170</SPAN><br/>
Bernart de Ventadorn, <SPAN href="#183">183</SPAN><br/>
Bernard of Cluny, or Morlaix, <SPAN href="#205">205</SPAN><br/>
Bertrand de Born, <SPAN href="#191">191</SPAN><br/>
Bestiarium, <SPAN href="#164">164</SPAN><br/>
Bible study, <SPAN href="#234">234</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#252">252</SPAN><br/>
Blanche of Castile, <SPAN href="#289">289</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN>;<br/>
as a mother, <SPAN href="#326">326</SPAN>;<br/>
as a ruler, <SPAN href="#326">326</SPAN><br/>
Blessed work, <SPAN href="#125">125</SPAN><br/>
Boileau, Stephen, <SPAN href="#365">365</SPAN><br/>
Boniface VII and American Revolution, <SPAN href="#374">374</SPAN><br/>
Books, beautiful, <SPAN href="#150">150</SPAN>;<br/>
bequests, <SPAN href="#155">155</SPAN>;<br/>
collecting, <SPAN href="#154">154</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#157">157</SPAN>;<br/>
great stone, <SPAN href="#115">115</SPAN><br/>
Booklovers, <SPAN href="#155">155</SPAN><br/>
Book-learning, <SPAN href="#129">129</SPAN><br/>
Book of Arts, Deeds, Words, <SPAN href="#5">5</SPAN><br/>
Borgo Allegri, <SPAN href="#141">141</SPAN><br/>
Botany, <SPAN href="#149">149</SPAN><br/>
Bracton, <SPAN href="#361">361</SPAN><br/>
Bracton's digest, <SPAN href="#15">15</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#82">82</SPAN><br/>
Bremen, <SPAN href="#420">420</SPAN><br/>
Brook farm, <SPAN href="#264">264</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
C.<br/>
<br/>
Cahors, <SPAN href="#34">34</SPAN><br/>
Calendar, <SPAN href="#43">43</SPAN><br/>
Calvi, College of, <SPAN href="#26">26</SPAN><br/>
Capital, English, created, <SPAN href="#357">357</SPAN><br/>
Canon law, codified, <SPAN href="#370">370</SPAN><br/>
Canticle of Sun, <SPAN href="#258">258</SPAN><br/>
Carlyle,<br/>
Minnesong, <SPAN href="#183">183</SPAN>;<br/>
Nibelungen, <SPAN href="#178">178</SPAN><br/>
Case histories, <SPAN href="#84">84</SPAN><br/>
Casimir the Great, <SPAN href="#369">369</SPAN><br/>
Caspian not a gulf, <SPAN href="#406">406</SPAN><br/>
Castles and armories, <SPAN href="#120">120</SPAN><br/>
Catalogues of libraries, <SPAN href="#151">151</SPAN><br/>
Cathedral Symbolism, <SPAN href="#118">118</SPAN><br/>
Cavalcanti, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN><br/>
Celano, <SPAN href="#197">197</SPAN><br/>
Chalices, <SPAN href="#113">113</SPAN><br/>
Charity organizations, <SPAN href="#27">27</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#345">345</SPAN><br/>
Chartres, glass, <SPAN href="#14">14</SPAN>;<br/>
windows, <SPAN href="#111">111</SPAN><br/>
Chauliac, <SPAN href="#92">92</SPAN><br/>
Chemistry, <SPAN href="#46">46</SPAN>;<br/>
not forbidden, <SPAN href="#93">93</SPAN><br/>
Chester cycle, <SPAN href="#240">240</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#242">242</SPAN><br/>
Chrestien de Troyes, <SPAN href="#175">175</SPAN><br/>
Chronicles, <SPAN href="#224">224</SPAN><br/>
Cid, El, <SPAN href="#9">9</SPAN><br/>
Cimabue, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#12">12</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#140">140</SPAN><br/>
Cino da Pistoia, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN><br/>
Circulating libraries, <SPAN href="#149">149</SPAN><br/>
Clare, St., and St. Francis, <SPAN href="#322">322</SPAN><br/>
Clare, St., <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN>;<br/>
character, <SPAN href="#321">321</SPAN>;<br/>
happiness, <SPAN href="#322">322</SPAN>;<br/>
life, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN><br/>
Clarendon assizes, <SPAN href="#351">351</SPAN>;<br/>
constitutions, <SPAN href="#351">351</SPAN><br/>
Clerics at the universities, <SPAN href="#71">71</SPAN><br/>
Cloisters, Lateran, <SPAN href="#121">121</SPAN>;<br/>
St. Paul's, Rome, <SPAN href="#121">121</SPAN><br/>
Coal, <SPAN href="#397">397</SPAN><br/>
Code of Hammurabi, <SPAN href="#3">3</SPAN><br/>
Coeducation, <SPAN href="#330">330</SPAN><br/>
Colleges, Origin of, <SPAN href="#29">29</SPAN><br/>
Cologne, <SPAN href="#420">420</SPAN><br/>
Common Law, <SPAN href="#361">361</SPAN><br/>
Commentaries on Law, <SPAN href="#371">371</SPAN><br/>
Common pleas, <SPAN href="#35">35</SPAN><br/>
Comparative university attendance, <SPAN href="#61">61</SPAN><br/>
Compayré, <SPAN href="#67">67</SPAN><br/>
Complaints of books, <SPAN href="#158">158</SPAN><br/>
Composition of matter, <SPAN href="#38">38</SPAN><br/>
Condorcet, <SPAN href="#34">34</SPAN><br/>
Conrad of Kirchberg, <SPAN href="#188">188</SPAN><br/>
Conservation of energy, <SPAN href="#39">39</SPAN><br/>
Cope of Ascoli, <SPAN href="#115">115</SPAN><br/>
Corrections, Optical, <SPAN href="#131">131</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Cost of books, <SPAN href="#156">156</SPAN><br/>
Crusades and democracy, <SPAN href="#389">389</SPAN>;<br/>
Greene, on, <SPAN href="#389">389</SPAN>;<br/>
Storrs on, <SPAN href="#388">388</SPAN>;<br/>
Stubbs on, <SPAN href="#298">298</SPAN><br/>
Curtain lectures, <SPAN href="#331">331</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
D.<br/>
<br/>
Dante da Maiano, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN><br/>
Dante and children, <SPAN href="#313">313</SPAN>;<br/>
and Milton, <SPAN href="#315">315</SPAN>;<br/>
and Virgil, <SPAN href="#316">316</SPAN>;<br/>
education, <SPAN href="#300">300</SPAN>;<br/>
in America, <SPAN href="#311">311</SPAN>;<br/>
in England, <SPAN href="#305">305</SPAN>;<br/>
in Germany, <SPAN href="#309">309</SPAN>;<br/>
in Italy, <SPAN href="#304">304</SPAN>;<br/>
not alone, <SPAN href="#300">300</SPAN>;<br/>
power of observation, <SPAN href="#313">313</SPAN>;<br/>
present estimation, <SPAN href="#317">317</SPAN>;<br/>
sonnets, <SPAN href="#302">302</SPAN>;<br/>
troubadour, <SPAN href="#303">303</SPAN>;<br/>
universality, <SPAN href="#301">301</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
Dante-Gesellschaft, <SPAN href="#310">310</SPAN><br/>
Dean Church's Dante, <SPAN href="#306">306</SPAN><br/>
Decay of Philosophy, <SPAN href="#282">282</SPAN><br/>
Declaration of Independence, Swiss, <SPAN href="#377">377</SPAN><br/>
Degrees, <SPAN href="#36">36</SPAN><br/>
De Maistre, <SPAN href="#66">66</SPAN><br/>
Democracy and the Crusades, <SPAN href="#388">388</SPAN>;<br/>
guilds, <SPAN href="#378">378</SPAN><br/>
Denifle, <SPAN href="#35">35</SPAN><br/>
De Roo on pre-Columbian America, <SPAN href="#400">400</SPAN><br/>
Dialectics, <SPAN href="#33">33</SPAN><br/>
Dies Irae, Admirers of, <SPAN href="#199">199</SPAN>;<br/>
supreme, <SPAN href="#197">197</SPAN><br/>
Dietmar von Eist, <SPAN href="#186">186</SPAN><br/>
Digest of common law, <SPAN href="#361">361</SPAN><br/>
Discipline at universities, <SPAN href="#73">73</SPAN>;<br/>
and democracy, <SPAN href="#76">76</SPAN><br/>
Disease segregation, <SPAN href="#343">343</SPAN><br/>
Dissection not forbidden, <SPAN href="#91">91</SPAN><br/>
Dominicans and art, <SPAN href="#139">139</SPAN>;<br/>
and books, <SPAN href="#156">156</SPAN><br/>
St. Dominic, <SPAN href="#266">266</SPAN>;<br/>
and St. Francis, <SPAN href="#267">267</SPAN><br/>
Donatus, Deposition for ignorance of, <SPAN href="#30">30</SPAN><br/>
Drama and St. Francis, <SPAN href="#238">238</SPAN><br/>
Durandus, <SPAN href="#117">117</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#234">234</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
E.<br/>
<br/>
Education, classes, <SPAN href="#7">7</SPAN>;<br/>
masses, <SPAN href="#8">8</SPAN>;<br/>
popular, <SPAN href="#129">129</SPAN>;<br/>
of women, four periods, <SPAN href="#331">331</SPAN><br/>
Edward I, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#361">361</SPAN><br/>
Edward VI and charity, <SPAN href="#340">340</SPAN>;<br/>
education, <SPAN href="#386">386</SPAN><br/>
El Cid, <SPAN href="#169">169</SPAN>;<br/>
battle scene, <SPAN href="#170">170</SPAN>;<br/>
daughters' innocence, <SPAN href="#172">172</SPAN>;<br/>
marriage, <SPAN href="#171">171</SPAN>;<br/>
single author, <SPAN href="#169">169</SPAN><br/>
Emulation of workers, <SPAN href="#125">125</SPAN><br/>
Encyclopedia, <SPAN href="#231">231</SPAN><br/>
Enforcement of law, <SPAN href="#366">366</SPAN><br/>
English democracy, <SPAN href="#378">378</SPAN><br/>
Enterprise, commercial, <SPAN href="#421">421</SPAN><br/>
Epic poetry, <SPAN href="#167">167</SPAN><br/>
Equality of women, <SPAN href="#324">324</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#389">389</SPAN><br/>
Erysipelas segregated, <SPAN href="#344">344</SPAN><br/>
Evelyn's diary, <SPAN href="#131">131</SPAN><br/>
Evolution and man, <SPAN href="#3">3</SPAN><br/>
Experiment, <SPAN href="#44">44</SPAN><br/>
Explosives, <SPAN href="#42">42</SPAN><br/>
Exultet, <SPAN href="#207">207</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
F.<br/>
<br/>
Fehmic Courts, <SPAN href="#368">368</SPAN><br/>
Felix of Valois, <SPAN href="#347">347</SPAN><br/>
Feminine education, <SPAN href="#330">330</SPAN>;<br/>
four periods, <SPAN href="#331">331</SPAN><br/>
reasons for decline, <SPAN href="#333">333</SPAN><br/>
Ferguson, <SPAN href="#97">97</SPAN><br/>
Francis, St., great disciples, <SPAN href="#263">263</SPAN>;<br/>
in drama, <SPAN href="#239">239</SPAN>;<br/>
influence still, <SPAN href="#266">266</SPAN>;<br/>
life, <SPAN href="#259">259</SPAN>;<br/>
literary man, <SPAN href="#255">255</SPAN>;<br/>
modern interest in, <SPAN href="#261">261</SPAN>;<br/>
Ruskin on, <SPAN href="#260">260</SPAN>;<br/>
second order, <SPAN href="#265">265</SPAN>;<br/>
third order, <SPAN href="#265">265</SPAN>;<br/>
troubadour, <SPAN href="#255">255</SPAN><br/>
Franciscans and Art, <SPAN href="#139">139</SPAN>;<br/>
explorers, <SPAN href="#394">394</SPAN><br/>
Fraternal insurance, <SPAN href="#382">382</SPAN><br/>
Fraternity, initiations, <SPAN href="#425">425</SPAN><br/>
Frederick II, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN><br/>
Freedom, development of, <SPAN href="#375">375</SPAN><br/>
Free cities, <SPAN href="#377">377</SPAN>;<br/>
schools, <SPAN href="#385">385</SPAN><br/>
Freemen's rights, <SPAN href="#358">358</SPAN><br/>
Friars, <SPAN href="#267">267</SPAN>;<br/>
Green's tribute to, <SPAN href="#268">268</SPAN>;<br/>
explorers, <SPAN href="#409">409</SPAN><br/>
Froude, <SPAN href="#97">97</SPAN>;<br/>
on Reynard, <SPAN href="#211">211</SPAN><br/>
Furniture, <SPAN href="#122">122</SPAN><br/>
Finsen anticipated, <SPAN href="#89">89</SPAN><br/>
Five Sisters, York, <SPAN href="#14">14</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#110">110</SPAN><br/>
Founder of Hospitals, <SPAN href="#337">337</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
G.<br/>
<br/>
Gaddi, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#142">142</SPAN><br/>
Galsang Gombeyev, <SPAN href="#402">402</SPAN><br/>
Geography, <SPAN href="#50">50</SPAN><br/>
German Guild-hall, London, <SPAN href="#421">421</SPAN><br/>
Gerontius' dream, <SPAN href="#308">308</SPAN><br/>
Gild merchant, <SPAN href="#383">383</SPAN><br/>
Giotto, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#12">12</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#142">142</SPAN>;<br/>
appreciation of, <SPAN href="#145">145</SPAN>;<br/>
immense work, <SPAN href="#146">146</SPAN><br/>
Giotto's tower, <SPAN href="#122">122</SPAN><br/>
Gladstone and Richard de Bury, <SPAN href="#160">160</SPAN><br/>
Glosses, Law, <SPAN href="#371">371</SPAN><br/>
Goethe's Reynard, <SPAN href="#213">213</SPAN><br/>
Goerres, <SPAN href="#255">255</SPAN><br/>
Gohier, Urbain, <SPAN href="#379">379</SPAN><br/>
Golden Bull, <SPAN href="#369">369</SPAN><br/>
Golden Legend, <SPAN href="#213">213</SPAN><br/>
Goodyear, <SPAN href="#131">131</SPAN><br/>
Gothic, development, <SPAN href="#102">102</SPAN>;<br/>
English, <SPAN href="#100">100</SPAN>;<br/>
French, North German, <SPAN href="#167">167</SPAN>;<br/>
Sculpture, <SPAN href="#105">105-107</SPAN>;<br/>
Spanish, <SPAN href="#100">100</SPAN>;<br/>
varieties, <SPAN href="#12">12</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#100">100</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#167">167</SPAN><br/>
Grail Legends, <SPAN href="#174">174</SPAN><br/>
Gratian, <SPAN href="#81">81</SPAN><br/>
Gray, <SPAN href="#32">32</SPAN><br/>
Green on Matthew Paris, <SPAN href="#229">229</SPAN><br/>
Greatness of an epoch, <SPAN href="#6">6</SPAN><br/>
Gregorian chant, <SPAN href="#207">207</SPAN><br/>
Grotesque in Dante, <SPAN href="#309">309</SPAN><br/>
Grounds of ignorance, <SPAN href="#41">41</SPAN><br/>
Guido de Montpelier, <SPAN href="#338">338</SPAN><br/>
Guido, <SPAN href="#142">142</SPAN><br/>
Guilds, <SPAN href="#132">132</SPAN>;<br/>
and the drama, <SPAN href="#136">136</SPAN>;<br/>
and democracy, <SPAN href="#378">378</SPAN>;<br/>
Boston, <SPAN href="#382">382</SPAN>;<br/>
London, <SPAN href="#382">382</SPAN>;<br/>
number, <SPAN href="#381">381</SPAN>;<br/>
rules, <SPAN href="#38">38</SPAN>;<br/>
list of, <SPAN href="#245">245</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
H.<br/>
<br/>
Hamburg, <SPAN href="#420">420</SPAN><br/>
Hamilton, <SPAN href="#34">34</SPAN><br/>
Hammurabi, <SPAN href="#4">4</SPAN><br/>
Hansa Alamanniae, <SPAN href="#422">422</SPAN>;<br/>
and Denmark, <SPAN href="#419">419</SPAN>;<br/>
geese cackle, <SPAN href="#419">419</SPAN>;<br/>
obscurity of origin, <SPAN href="#416">416</SPAN><br/>
Harper, <SPAN href="#52">52</SPAN><br/>
Hartman von Aue, <SPAN href="#186">186</SPAN><br/>
Hayton, <SPAN href="#412">412</SPAN><br/>
Healing by first intention, <SPAN href="#85">85</SPAN><br/>
Herodotus and Marco Polo, <SPAN href="#396">396</SPAN><br/>
History, so-called, <SPAN href="#127">127</SPAN>, appendix<br/>
Hollandus, <SPAN href="#94">94</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Homer, <SPAN href="#3">3</SPAN><br/>
Hospitals, earliest, <SPAN href="#337">337</SPAN>;<br/>
England, <SPAN href="#339">339</SPAN><br/>
Hotel Dieu, <SPAN href="#339">339</SPAN>;<br/>
endowment, <SPAN href="#339">339</SPAN><br/>
Human life, value, <SPAN href="#367">367</SPAN><br/>
Human rights, <SPAN href="#366">366</SPAN><br/>
Humboldt on Dante, <SPAN href="#311">311-315</SPAN><br/>
Humboldt, <SPAN href="#47">47</SPAN><br/>
Humor in mystery plays, <SPAN href="#241">241</SPAN><br/>
Humphreys, <SPAN href="#162">162</SPAN><br/>
Huysmans, <SPAN href="#120">120</SPAN><br/>
Hymns often heard, <SPAN href="#195">195</SPAN>;<br/>
and languages, <SPAN href="#203">203</SPAN>;<br/>
seven greatest, <SPAN href="#199">199</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
I.<br/>
<br/>
Ignorance and servitude, <SPAN href="#127">127</SPAN><br/>
Illuminated books, <SPAN href="#162">162</SPAN><br/>
Indestructibility of matter, <SPAN href="#39">39</SPAN><br/>
International court, <SPAN href="#424">424</SPAN>;<br/>
comity, <SPAN href="#428">428</SPAN>;<br/>
fraternity, <SPAN href="#391">391</SPAN><br/>
Irnerius, <SPAN href="#18">18</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#81">81</SPAN><br/>
Iron work, <SPAN href="#114">114</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
J.<br/>
<br/>
Jenghis Khan, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN><br/>
Jerusalem the Golden, <SPAN href="#205">205</SPAN><br/>
Jessopp, Rev. Augustus, <SPAN href="#133">133</SPAN><br/>
Job, <SPAN href="#3">3</SPAN><br/>
Jocelyn of Brakelond, <SPAN href="#226">226</SPAN>;<br/>
and Boswell, <SPAN href="#227">227</SPAN>;<br/>
selection, <SPAN href="#227">227</SPAN><br/>
John of Carpini, <SPAN href="#400">400</SPAN><br/>
John of Matha, <SPAN href="#347">347</SPAN><br/>
John of Monte Corvino, <SPAN href="#410">410-412</SPAN><br/>
Joinville and the poor, <SPAN href="#297">297</SPAN>;<br/>
selection, <SPAN href="#228">228</SPAN><br/>
Journeymen, <SPAN href="#135">135</SPAN><br/>
Justinian, English, <SPAN href="#363">363</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
K.<br/>
<br/>
Kenilworth, <SPAN href="#121">121</SPAN><br/>
Kidney disease, <SPAN href="#84">84</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
L.<br/>
<br/>
Lafenestre, <SPAN href="#138">138-144</SPAN><br/>
Lamentations, <SPAN href="#207">207</SPAN><br/>
Lanfranc, <SPAN href="#37">37</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#83">83</SPAN><br/>
Lancelot, <SPAN href="#175">175</SPAN><br/>
Lateran, Council of, <SPAN href="#28">28</SPAN><br/>
Laurie, <SPAN href="#59">59</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#63">63</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#65">65</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#76">76</SPAN><br/>
Law, Canon, <SPAN href="#370">370</SPAN>;<br/>
French, <SPAN href="#364">364</SPAN>;<br/>
German, <SPAN href="#368">368</SPAN>;<br/>
Glosses, <SPAN href="#371">371</SPAN>;<br/>
Hungarian, <SPAN href="#369">369</SPAN>;<br/>
Polish, <SPAN href="#369">369</SPAN>;<br/>
Spanish, <SPAN href="#15">15</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
Lea, Henry C, <SPAN href="#60">60</SPAN><br/>
League, Lombard, <SPAN href="#417">417</SPAN><br/>
Legenda Aurea, <SPAN href="#213">213</SPAN><br/>
Lending of books, <SPAN href="#152">152</SPAN><br/>
Lending of professors, <SPAN href="#56">56</SPAN><br/>
Leo XIII, <SPAN href="#81">81</SPAN><br/>
Lepers, Louis IX and, <SPAN href="#297">297</SPAN><br/>
Leprosy eradicated, <SPAN href="#343">343</SPAN><br/>
Lerida, <SPAN href="#24">24</SPAN><br/>
Lhasa entered, <SPAN href="#410">410</SPAN><br/>
Liberties and customs, <SPAN href="#360">360</SPAN>;<br/>
English, <SPAN href="#358">358</SPAN>;<br/>
Hungary and Poland, <SPAN href="#369">369</SPAN><br/>
Library of La Ste. Chapelle, <SPAN href="#152">152</SPAN>;<br/>
circulating, <SPAN href="#152">152</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#165">165</SPAN>;<br/>
of Hotel Dieu, <SPAN href="#153">153</SPAN>;<br/>
of the Sorbonne, <SPAN href="#153">153</SPAN><br/>
Lincoln, <SPAN href="#96">96</SPAN><br/>
Lingard, <SPAN href="#61">61</SPAN><br/>
Literature for women, <SPAN href="#334">334</SPAN><br/>
Lodge, Sir Oliver, <SPAN href="#40">40</SPAN><br/>
Longfellow, <SPAN href="#209">209</SPAN>;<br/>
Dante, <SPAN href="#311">311</SPAN><br/>
Louis IX, <SPAN href="#289">289</SPAN>;<br/>
books, <SPAN href="#164">164</SPAN>;<br/>
charity, <SPAN href="#296">296</SPAN>;<br/>
crusades, <SPAN href="#298">298</SPAN>;<br/>
education, <SPAN href="#291">291</SPAN>;<br/>
father, <SPAN href="#290">290-294</SPAN>;<br/>
husband, <SPAN href="#289">289</SPAN>;<br/>
justice, <SPAN href="#293">293</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#294">294</SPAN>;<br/>
law, <SPAN href="#365">365</SPAN>;<br/>
monks, <SPAN href="#295">295</SPAN>;<br/>
son, <SPAN href="#289">289</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
Lowell on Dante, <SPAN href="#311">311</SPAN><br/>
Lübeck punished, <SPAN href="#418">418</SPAN>;<br/>
laws, <SPAN href="#422">422</SPAN><br/>
Lully, <SPAN href="#57">57</SPAN><br/>
Lunar rainbows, <SPAN href="#48">48</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
M.<br/>
<br/>
Mabel Rich, <SPAN href="#327">327</SPAN><br/>
MacCarthy, <SPAN href="#201">201</SPAN><br/>
Magna Charta, <SPAN href="#1">1</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#350">350</SPAN>;<br/>
development of, <SPAN href="#353">353</SPAN>;<br/>
excerpts, <SPAN href="#352">352</SPAN>, et seq.<br/>
Malory, <SPAN href="#175">175</SPAN><br/>
Mandeville, <SPAN href="#408">408</SPAN><br/>
Manning on Dante, <SPAN href="#308">308</SPAN><br/>
Map or Mapes, Walter, <SPAN href="#174">174-176</SPAN><br/>
March on Latin Hymns, <SPAN href="#195">195</SPAN><br/>
Marco Millioni, <SPAN href="#396">396</SPAN><br/>
Maria di Novella, <SPAN href="#331">331</SPAN><br/>
Masterpieces, <SPAN href="#135">135</SPAN><br/>
Matter and form, <SPAN href="#40">40</SPAN>;<br/>
constitution of, <SPAN href="#40">40</SPAN><br/>
Matthew Paris, <SPAN href="#229">229</SPAN>;<br/>
Green's tribute, <SPAN href="#229">229</SPAN><br/>
Meaning of Cathedral, <SPAN href="#118">118</SPAN><br/>
Meistersingers, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN><br/>
Merchants' privileges, <SPAN href="#359">359</SPAN><br/>
Merrie England, <SPAN href="#126">126</SPAN><br/>
Metaphysical speculations, <SPAN href="#33">33-37</SPAN><br/>
Method of study, <SPAN href="#53">53</SPAN><br/>
Meyer, <SPAN href="#49">49</SPAN><br/>
Middle Ages, place of, <SPAN href="#5">5</SPAN><br/>
Middle class students, <SPAN href="#72">72</SPAN><br/>
Mill, <SPAN href="#34">34</SPAN><br/>
Millet, <SPAN href="#145">145</SPAN><br/>
Minnesingers, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN><br/>
Modern war correspondents anticipated, <SPAN href="#225">225</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#228">228</SPAN><br/>
Mondino, <SPAN href="#93">93</SPAN><br/>
Money and privileges, <SPAN href="#426">426</SPAN><br/>
Money grabbers, <SPAN href="#217">217</SPAN><br/>
Monks, Idle, <SPAN href="#414">414</SPAN>;<br/>
explorers, <SPAN href="#413">413</SPAN><br/>
Monroe, <SPAN href="#55">55</SPAN><br/>
Montalembert, monks, <SPAN href="#414">414</SPAN>;<br/>
laws, <SPAN href="#364">364</SPAN><br/>
Montpelier, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Morley, Henry, <SPAN href="#42">42</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#157">157</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#173">173</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#244">244</SPAN><br/>
Most read books. Ten, <SPAN href="#209">209</SPAN><br/>
Motor cars, <SPAN href="#43">43</SPAN><br/>
Music, Church, <SPAN href="#206">206</SPAN>;<br/>
part, <SPAN href="#207">207</SPAN><br/>
Mutual Aid, <SPAN href="#379">379</SPAN><br/>
Mystery plays, players, <SPAN href="#247">247</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#250">250</SPAN>;<br/>
bible study, <SPAN href="#251">251</SPAN>;<br/>
influence, <SPAN href="#252">252</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
N.<br/>
<br/>
Names, Medieval, <SPAN href="#331">331</SPAN><br/>
Nations, <SPAN href="#76">76</SPAN><br/>
Neale, <SPAN href="#206">206</SPAN><br/>
Needlework, <SPAN href="#14">14</SPAN><br/>
Nerve suture, <SPAN href="#86">86</SPAN><br/>
Newman's tribute to Dante, <SPAN href="#306">306</SPAN><br/>
New York Times Building, <SPAN href="#123">123</SPAN><br/>
Nibelungen, <SPAN href="#177">177</SPAN><br/>
Noah and wife, <SPAN href="#242">242</SPAN><br/>
Nolasco, Peter, <SPAN href="#348">348</SPAN><br/>
Notebook, The elegant, <SPAN href="#54">54</SPAN><br/>
Novgorod founded, <SPAN href="#421">421</SPAN><br/>
Numbers of students, <SPAN href="#63">63</SPAN>, et seq<br/>
Nurses' habits, <SPAN href="#345">345</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
O.<br/>
<br/>
Odoric, <SPAN href="#409">409</SPAN><br/>
One thing a day, <SPAN href="#54">54</SPAN><br/>
Optics, <SPAN href="#44">44</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Optical corrections, <SPAN href="#131">131</SPAN><br/>
Opus Majus, <SPAN href="#45">45</SPAN><br/>
Organized charity, <SPAN href="#381">381</SPAN><br/>
Osler, <SPAN href="#108">108</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#323">323</SPAN><br/>
Oxford, <SPAN href="#22">22</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
P.<br/>
<br/>
Padua, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Pagel, <SPAN href="#90">90</SPAN>;<br/>
on Vincent of Beauvais, <SPAN href="#233">233</SPAN><br/>
Palencia, <SPAN href="#24">24</SPAN><br/>
Pange Lingua, <SPAN href="#199">199</SPAN><br/>
Papal Court and academy, <SPAN href="#31">31</SPAN><br/>
Parliament, First English, <SPAN href="#14">14</SPAN><br/>
Parzifal, <SPAN href="#188">188</SPAN><br/>
Peace Burgs, <SPAN href="#420">420</SPAN><br/>
Pennell, Elizabeth Robbins, <SPAN href="#98">98</SPAN><br/>
Peregrinus, <SPAN href="#37">37-44</SPAN><br/>
Perugia, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Petroleum, <SPAN href="#397">397</SPAN><br/>
Peyrols, <SPAN href="#192">192</SPAN><br/>
Philobiblon, <SPAN href="#157">157</SPAN><br/>
Philosophic writers, <SPAN href="#222">222</SPAN><br/>
Phosphorescence in Dante, <SPAN href="#315">315</SPAN><br/>
Physical geography, <SPAN href="#47">47</SPAN><br/>
Place of women, <SPAN href="#319">319</SPAN><br/>
Plain Chant, <SPAN href="#207">207</SPAN><br/>
Plumptre's Dante, <SPAN href="#310">310</SPAN><br/>
Polo, Marco, <SPAN href="#396">396</SPAN><br/>
Poor students, <SPAN href="#72">72</SPAN><br/>
Poor, Washing feet of, <SPAN href="#297">297</SPAN><br/>
Popes and Laws, <SPAN href="#370">370</SPAN><br/>
Pope Alexander IV, <SPAN href="#31">31</SPAN>;<br/>
Boniface VIII, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>;<br/>
Gregory IX, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#30">30</SPAN>;<br/>
Honorius IV, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#30">30</SPAN>;<br/>
Innocent III, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#30">30</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#337">337</SPAN><br/>
Population of England, <SPAN href="#61">61</SPAN><br/>
Potamian, Brother, <SPAN href="#37">37</SPAN><br/>
Piacenza, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Practical knowledge, <SPAN href="#41">41</SPAN><br/>
Preparatory schools, <SPAN href="#26">26</SPAN><br/>
Pre-renaissance, <SPAN href="#5">5</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#254">254</SPAN><br/>
Professors' publications, <SPAN href="#79">79</SPAN><br/>
Progress of liberty, <SPAN href="#386">386</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Q.<br/>
<br/>
Queen Berengaria, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN><br/>
Queen Blanche of Castile, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
R.<br/>
<br/>
Ransom of prisoners, <SPAN href="#347">347</SPAN><br/>
Raymond of Pennafort, <SPAN href="#348">348</SPAN><br/>
Real Estate Law, <SPAN href="#362">362</SPAN><br/>
Redemption of captives, <SPAN href="#348">348</SPAN><br/>
Red-light therapy, <SPAN href="#89">89</SPAN><br/>
Religious order for erysipelas, <SPAN href="#345">345</SPAN>;<br/>
for slaves, <SPAN href="#347">347</SPAN><br/>
Reinach, <SPAN href="#103">103</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#116">116</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#128">128</SPAN><br/>
Representative government, <SPAN href="#372">372</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#386">386</SPAN><br/>
Renaissance, <SPAN href="#5">5</SPAN><br/>
Reynard the Fox, <SPAN href="#210">210</SPAN>;<br/>
original, <SPAN href="#212">212</SPAN><br/>
Rheims, <SPAN href="#105">105</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#107">107</SPAN><br/>
Rhenish cities, <SPAN href="#420">420</SPAN><br/>
Rhymed Latin, <SPAN href="#104">104</SPAN><br/>
Rhyme, origin, <SPAN href="#199">199</SPAN><br/>
Richard Coeur de Lion, <SPAN href="#1">1</SPAN><br/>
Richard de Bury, <SPAN href="#157">157</SPAN>;<br/>
as a churchman, <SPAN href="#161">161</SPAN>;<br/>
chaplains, <SPAN href="#160">160</SPAN>;<br/>
charity, <SPAN href="#161">161</SPAN>;<br/>
place in history, <SPAN href="#159">159</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
Rich, Mabel, <SPAN href="#327">327</SPAN>;<br/>
and her sons, <SPAN href="#327">327</SPAN><br/>
Robinson, Fr. Paschal, <SPAN href="#257">257</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#261">261</SPAN><br/>
Rod in school, <SPAN href="#185">185</SPAN><br/>
Roland, <SPAN href="#181">181</SPAN><br/>
Romance of Rose, <SPAN href="#215">215</SPAN>;<br/>
charge of dullness, <SPAN href="#216">216</SPAN>;<br/>
poor happy, <SPAN href="#219">219</SPAN>;<br/>
misers miserable, <SPAN href="#218">218</SPAN>;<br/>
satire on money grabbers, <SPAN href="#217">217</SPAN><br/>
Rossetti on Dante, <SPAN href="#317">317</SPAN><br/>
Rubruquis, <SPAN href="#403">403</SPAN>;<br/>
on customs, <SPAN href="#408">408</SPAN>;<br/>
on languages, <SPAN href="#405">405</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#407">407</SPAN><br/>
Rucellai Madonna, <SPAN href="#141">141</SPAN><br/>
Rudolph of Hapsburg, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, appendix<br/>
Ruskin, <SPAN href="#6">6</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#123">123</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#260">260</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#309">309</SPAN><br/>
Rusticiano, <SPAN href="#399">399</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
S.<br/>
<br/>
Sadness absent in Gothic art, <SPAN href="#147">147</SPAN><br/>
Saintsbury, <SPAN href="#34">34</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#36">36</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#175">175</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#180">180</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#197">197</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#223">223</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#226">226</SPAN><br/>
Saladin, <SPAN href="#1">1</SPAN><br/>
Salamanca, <SPAN href="#24">24</SPAN><br/>
Salamander, asbestos, <SPAN href="#398">398</SPAN><br/>
Salicet, <SPAN href="#83">83</SPAN><br/>
Salimbene, Friar, <SPAN href="#403">403</SPAN><br/>
Salisbury, <SPAN href="#129">129</SPAN><br/>
Saturday, half-holiday, <SPAN href="#379">379</SPAN><br/>
Schaff, <SPAN href="#198">198</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#205">205</SPAN><br/>
Scholasticism and style, <SPAN href="#223">223</SPAN><br/>
Sculpture, Amiens, <SPAN href="#13">13</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#105">105</SPAN>;<br/>
Rheims, <SPAN href="#105">105</SPAN><br/>
St. Denis, <SPAN href="#13">13</SPAN><br/>
Settlement work, <SPAN href="#325">325</SPAN>;<br/>
Seneca, <SPAN href="#53">53</SPAN><br/>
Siena, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Sigbart, <SPAN href="#47">47</SPAN><br/>
Simon de Montfort, <SPAN href="#361">361</SPAN><br/>
Social unrest, <SPAN href="#124">124</SPAN><br/>
Sorbonne, Robert, <SPAN href="#53">53</SPAN><br/>
Sordello, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN><br/>
St. Bonaventure, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#203">203</SPAN>;<br/>
Clare, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN>;<br/>
Dominic, <SPAN href="#267">267</SPAN>;<br/>
Edmund, <SPAN href="#72">72</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#327">327</SPAN>;<br/>
Elizabeth, <SPAN href="#320">320</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#325">325</SPAN>;<br/>
Ferdinand, <SPAN href="#15">15</SPAN>;<br/>
Hugh, <SPAN href="#2">2</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#96">96</SPAN>;<br/>
Thomas, <SPAN href="#203">203</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
St. Gall, <SPAN href="#69">69</SPAN><br/>
St. John, Lateran, <SPAN href="#121">121</SPAN><br/>
St. Mary's Abbey, <SPAN href="#121">121</SPAN><br/>
St. Paul's, Rome, <SPAN href="#121">121</SPAN><br/>
St. Victor, Adam and Hugh of, <SPAN href="#204">204</SPAN><br/>
Stabat Mater, <SPAN href="#200">200</SPAN>;<br/>
translations, <SPAN href="#201">201</SPAN><br/>
Stained Glass, <SPAN href="#14">14</SPAN>;<br/>
Lincoln, <SPAN href="#109">109</SPAN>;<br/>
York, <SPAN href="#110">110</SPAN><br/>
Stevenson, R. M., <SPAN href="#99">99</SPAN><br/>
Storrs on Crusades, <SPAN href="#388">388</SPAN><br/>
Stubbs on Crusades, <SPAN href="#298">298</SPAN><br/>
Students, Support of, <SPAN href="#65">65</SPAN><br/>
Studies, <SPAN href="#33">33</SPAN><br/>
Studium generale, <SPAN href="#21">21</SPAN><br/>
Symbolism, <SPAN href="#117">117</SPAN><br/>
Systematizing thought, <SPAN href="#80">80</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
T.<br/>
<br/>
Tarragona, <SPAN href="#101">101</SPAN><br/>
Tartars, Book of, <SPAN href="#402">402</SPAN><br/>
Tasso and Nibelungen, <SPAN href="#179">179</SPAN><br/>
Taste, Popular, <SPAN href="#112">112</SPAN><br/>
Tate, <SPAN href="#52">52</SPAN><br/>
Taxation and representation, <SPAN href="#336">336</SPAN>;<br/>
no, without representation, <SPAN href="#374">374</SPAN><br/>
"The Three Eights, "<SPAN href="#379">379</SPAN><br/>
Thibet, <SPAN href="#410">410</SPAN><br/>
Thomas, St., See Aquinas<br/>
Thule, <SPAN href="#51">51</SPAN><br/>
Toledo, <SPAN href="#101">101</SPAN><br/>
Toulouse, <SPAN href="#24">24</SPAN><br/>
Towns and cathedrals, <SPAN href="#9">9</SPAN><br/>
Trade facilities, <SPAN href="#415">415</SPAN><br/>
Travel, medieval, <SPAN href="#394">394</SPAN><br/>
Troubadours, <SPAN href="#190">190</SPAN><br/>
Trouvères, <SPAN href="#10">10</SPAN><br/>
Turner, <SPAN href="#35">35</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#145">145</SPAN><br/>
Training intellect<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
U.<br/>
<br/>
Ungreek, only thing, <SPAN href="#99">99</SPAN><br/>
Universitas, <SPAN href="#21">21</SPAN><br/>
University, Bologna, <SPAN href="#19">19</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#58">58</SPAN>;<br/>
foundation, <SPAN href="#18">18</SPAN>;<br/>
Orleans, <SPAN href="#19">19</SPAN>;<br/>
Oxford, <SPAN href="#58">58</SPAN>;<br/>
Paris, <SPAN href="#18">18</SPAN>, <SPAN href="#58">58</SPAN>;<br/>
Salernum, <SPAN href="#20">20</SPAN>;<br/>
roughness, <SPAN href="#73">73</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
V.<br/>
<br/>
Vehmgerichte, <SPAN href="#368">368</SPAN><br/>
Vercelli, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Vicenza, <SPAN href="#23">23</SPAN><br/>
Vienna Cathedral, <SPAN href="#168">168</SPAN><br/>
Vigilance committees, <SPAN href="#368">368</SPAN><br/>
Vigils, holidays, <SPAN href="#379">379</SPAN><br/>
Villehardouin, <SPAN href="#224">224</SPAN>;<br/>
and Xenophon, <SPAN href="#225">225</SPAN><br/>
Vincent of Beauvais, <SPAN href="#231">231</SPAN>;<br/>
and historical writers, <SPAN href="#231">231</SPAN>;<br/>
methods, <SPAN href="#232">232</SPAN>;<br/>
style, <SPAN href="#233">233</SPAN><br/>
Virchow and evolution, <SPAN href="#3">3</SPAN>;<br/>
on hospitals, <SPAN href="#338">338</SPAN>;<br/>
on Pope Innocent, <SPAN href="#342">342</SPAN><br/>
Vocation for women, <SPAN href="#322">322</SPAN><br/>
Vogelweide, <SPAN href="#185">185</SPAN><br/>
Voragine, Jacobus de, <SPAN href="#213">213</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
W.<br/>
<br/>
Wandering students, <SPAN href="#57">57</SPAN><br/>
Wanderjahre, <SPAN href="#135">135</SPAN><br/>
Water cure, <SPAN href="#427">427</SPAN><br/>
Wernher, <SPAN href="#187">187</SPAN><br/>
Whewell, <SPAN href="#45">45</SPAN><br/>
Widows, Magna Charta, <SPAN href="#354">354</SPAN><br/>
William of Rubruk, <SPAN href="#403">403</SPAN><br/>
William of Salicet, <SPAN href="#83">83</SPAN><br/>
William of St. Gregory, <SPAN href="#192">192</SPAN><br/>
Wolfram von Eschenbach, <SPAN href="#187">187</SPAN><br/>
Women, in hospitals, <SPAN href="#328">328</SPAN>;<br/>
in literature, <SPAN href="#335">335</SPAN>;<br/>
occupations, <SPAN href="#329">329</SPAN>;<br/>
position, <SPAN href="#334">334</SPAN><br/>
Working students, <SPAN href="#60">60</SPAN><br/>
Wounds of neck, <SPAN href="#86">86</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
X.<br/>
<br/>
Xenophon, and Villehardouin, <SPAN href="#225">225</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Y.<br/>
<br/>
Yeats, <SPAN href="#113">113</SPAN><br/>
Yule, Colonel, <SPAN href="#401">401</SPAN>;<br/>
on Odoric, <SPAN href="#411">411</SPAN>;<br/>
on Rubruquis, <SPAN href="#407">407</SPAN><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Z.<br/>
<br/>
Zimmern, Miss, on Hansa, <SPAN href="#415">415</SPAN>;<br/>
on medieval initiations, <SPAN href="#425">425</SPAN><br/>
<br/></p>
<p>[End text; advertisements]</p>
<h2>Books by Dr. Walsh</h2>
<hr>
<p>Dear Dr. Walsh:
<br/><br/>
I beg to thank you for your interesting letter enclosing syllabus
of Advent Lectures and circular of your latest work. The highest
value attaches to historical research on the lines you so ably indicate,
especially at the present time, when the enemies of Holy
Church are making renewed efforts to show her antagonism to
science and human progress generally. I shall have much pleasure
in perusing your work entitled "The Thirteenth Greatest of Centuries."</p>
<p>Wishing you every blessing, I am, Yours sincerely in Xt.,
Rome, January 18th, 1908. R. Card. MERRY DEL VAL.</p>
<hr>
<h2><i>Fordham University Press Series</i> <br/><br/> MAKERS OF MODERN MEDICINE</h2>
<p class="cite">
A series of Biographies
of the men to whom we owe the important advances
in the development of modern medicine. By
James J. Walsh, M. D., Ph. D., LL.D., Dean and Professor
of the History of Medicine at Fordham University
School of Medicine, N. Y. Third Edition,
1914, 442 pp. Price, $3.00 net.</p>
<p><i>The London Lancet</i> said: "The list is well chosen, and we
have to express gratitude for so convenient and agreeable a collection
of biographies, for which we might otherwise have to search
through many scattered books. The sketches are pleasantly written,
interesting, and well adapted to convey the thoughtful members
of our profession just the amount of historical knowledge
that they would wish to obtain. We hope that the book will find
many readers."</p>
<p><i>The New York Times</i>: "The book is intended primarily for
students of medicine, but laymen will find it not a little interesting."</p>
<p><i>Il Morgagni</i> (Italy): "Professor Walsh narrates important
lives in modern medicine with an easy style that makes his book
delightful reading. It certainly will give the young physician an
excellent idea of who made our modern medicine."</p>
<p><i>The Church Standard</i> (Protestant Episcopal): "There is
perhaps no profession in which the lives of its leaders would make
more fascinating reading than that of medicine, and Dr. Walsh by
his clever style and sympathetic treatment by no means mars the
interest which we might thus expect."</p>
<p><i>The New York Medical Journal</i>: "We welcome works of this
kind; they are evidence of the growth of culture within the medical
profession, which betokens that the time has come when our
teachers have the leisure to look backward to what has been
accomplished."</p>
<p><i>Science</i>: "The sketches are extremely entertaining and useful.
Perhaps the most striking thing is that everyone of the men
described was of the Catholic faith, and the dominant idea is that
great scientific work is not incompatible with devout adherence to
the tenets of the Catholic religion."</p>
<br/>
<h2>MAKERS OF ELECTRICITY</h2>
<p class="cite">
By Brother Potamian, F. S. C, Sc. D. (London), Professor
of Physics in Manhattan College, and James J. Walsh, M.
D., Ph. D., Litt. D., Dean and Professor of the History of
Medicine and of Nervous Diseases at Fordham University
School of Medicine, New York. Fordham University Press,
110 West 74th Street. Illustrated Price, $2.50 net.
Postage, 15 Cents Extra.</p>
<p><i>The Scientific American</i>: "One will find in this book very
good sketches of the lives of the great pioneers in Electricity, with a
clear presentation of how it was that these men came to make their
fundamental experiments, and how we now reach conclusions in
Science that would have been impossible until their work of revealing
was done. The biographies are those of Peregrinus, Columbus,
Norman and Gilbert, Franklin and some contemporaries, Galvini,
Volta, Coulomb, Oersted, Ampere, Ohm, Faraday, Clerk Maxwell,
and Kelvin."</p>
<p><i>The Boston Globe</i>: "The book is of surpassing interest."</p>
<p><i>The New York Sun</i>: "The researches of Brother Potamian
among the pioneers in antiquity and the Middle Ages are perhaps
more interesting than Dr. Walsh's admirable summaries of the
accomplishment of the heroes of modern science. The book testifies
to the excellence of Catholic scholarship."</p>
<p><i>The Evening Post</i>: "It is a matter of importance that the work
and lives of men like Gilbert, Franklin, Galvini, Volta, Ampere and
others should be made known to the students of Electricity, and this
office has been well fulfilled by the present authors. The book is no
mere compilation, but brings out many interesting and obscure facts,
especially about the earlier men."</p>
<p><i>The Philadelphia Record</i>: "It is a glance at the whole field of
Electricity by men who are noted for the thoroughness of their
research, and it should be made accessible to every reader capable
of taking a serious interest in the wonderful phenomena of nature."</p>
<p><i>Electrical World</i>: "Aside from the intrinsic interest of its
matter, the book is delightful to read owing to the graceful literary
style common to both authors. One not having the slightest
acquaintance with electrical science will find the book of absorbing
interest as treating in a human way and with literary art the life
work of some of the greatest men of modern times; and, moreover,
in the course of his reading he will incidentally obtain a sound
knowledge of the main principles upon which almost all present-day
electrical development is based. It is a shining example of how
science can be popularized without the slightest twisting of facts or
distortion of perspective. Electrical readers will find the book also
a scholarly treatise on the evolution of electrical science, and a
most refreshing change from the "Engineering English" of the
typical technical writer."</p>
<br/>
<h2>EDUCATION, HOW OLD THE NEW</h2>
<p class="cite">
A Series of Lectures and Addresses on Phases of Education in the
Past Which Anticipate Most of Our Modern Advances, by James J.
Walsh, M. D., Ph. D., Litt. D., K. C. St. G. Dean and Professor of
the History of Medicine and of Nervous Diseases at Fordham
University School of Medicine. Fordham University Press, 1910. 470
pp. Price, $2.50 net. Postage, 15 Cents Extra.</p>
<p>Cardinal Moran (Sydney, Australia): "I have to thank you for the
excellent volume Education How Old the New. The lectures are
admirable, just the sort of reading we want for English readers of the
present day."</p>
<p><i>New York Sun</i>: "It is all bright and witty and based on deep
erudition."</p>
<p><i>The North American</i> (Phila.): "Wide historical research, clear
graphic statement are salient elements of this interesting and
suggestive addition to the modern welter of educational literature."</p>
<p><i>Detroit Free Press</i>: "Full of interesting facts and parallels drawn
from them that afford much material for reflection."</p>
<p><i>Chicago Inter-Ocean</i>: "Incidentally it does away with a number of
popular misconceptions as to education in the Middle Ages and as to
education in the Latin-American countries at a somewhat later time.
The book is written in a straight unpretentious and interesting
style."</p>
<p><i>Wilkes-Barre Record</i>: "The volume is most interesting and shows deep
research bearing the marks of the indefatigable student."</p>
<p><i>Pittsburg Post</i>: "There is no bitterness of controversy and one of
the first things to strike the reader is that the dean of Fordham
quotes from nearly everybody worth while, Protestant or Catholic,
poetry, biography, history, science or what not."</p>
<p><i>The Wall Street News</i> (N. Y.): "The book is calculated to cause a
healthy reduction in the conceit which each generation enjoys at the
expense of that which preceded it."</p>
<p><i>Rochester Post Express</i>: "The book is well worth reading."</p>
<p><i>The New Orleans Democrat</i>: "The book makes very interesting reading,
but there is a succession of shocks in store in it for the complacent
New Englander or Bostonian and for the orthodox or perfunctory reader
of American literature."</p>
<br/>
<h2>OLD TIME MAKERS OF MEDICINE</h2>
<p class="cite">
The Story of the Medical Sciences during the Middle Ages. By James
J. Walsh, K. C. St, G., M. D., Ph. D. Dean and Professor of the
History of Medicine and of Nervous Diseases at Fordham University
School of Medicine. Fordham University Press, 1911. Price, $2.50
net. Postage, 15 cents.</p>
<p>What we now know of art, architecture, literature, the arts and crafts
in the Middle Ages has almost won for them the name of the Bright Ages
instead of the Dark Ages. There seems just one dark spot—the neglect
of science. This book removes that. It tells the story of medieval
medical education with higher standards than ours, of medieval surgery
with anaesthesia and antisepsis, with beautiful hospitals and fine
nursing, and of medieval dentistry with gold fillings and bridgework.</p>
<p><i>The Lancet</i> (London): "We have said enough to whet the appetite of
all interested in the history of the early makers of medicine. We
cordially commend the perusal of this fascinating volume, which shows
how much was accomplished in every department of intellectual effort
in what is usually regarded as the unprogressive, stagnant, dark
period of the Middle Ages."</p>
<p><i>The New York World</i> said: "As in Dr. Walsh's 'Thirteenth The Greatest
of Centuries' he carries amazement with his revelations of how old are
many things we call new."</p>
<br/>
<h2>MODERN PROGRESS AND HISTORY:</h2>
<p class="cite">
Lectures on various academic occasions by James J. Walsh, M. D., Ph.
D., K. C. St. G., Litt, D., Sc. D. Dean and Professor of The History
of Medicine and of Functional Nervous Diseases at Fordham University
School of Medicine, Fordham University Press, 1912. Pp. 450 Twelve
illustrations. Price, $2.50 net. Postage, 15 cents.</p>
<p>Though delivered on various occasions, these lectures are all on the
theme that our modern progress is but a repetition of previous phases
of human accomplishment and that whenever men faced certain problems
they solved them as well at any time in history as they do now.
Educational problems are shown to have been the same in Greece and
Rome as in our own time. Old time prescriptions in medicine are
strangely like many that we have now. Old time dentists filled teeth
with gold and tin, did fine bridgework, invented movable dentures,
transplanted teeth successfully and anticipated our dental progress.
Pronunciation, Old and New, shows that the Irish brogue is
Shakespeare's pronunciation while The Women of Two Republics
demonstrates how old are our political problems, even suffragettism.
"The book is disillusioning, but marvelously illuminating."</p>
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